Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Nāsir (Arabic: أبو نصر محمد بن الناصر; 1175 – 11 July 1226), better known with his regnal name al-Ẓāhir bi-Amr Allāh (الظاهر بأمر الله, lit.

When it became known that Genghis Khan was marching towards Khwarazm, Jalal al-Din proposed to his father to meet the Mongols in one decisive battle near the Syr Darya.

However, Muhammad II relied on his well-fortified fortresses and did not assemble troops, distributing them instead among the major towns of his empire.

Muhammad started to retreat west, and after a series of unsuccessful battles, was left with a handful of soldiers and his sons.

[2] Due to the Mongol invasion, the sacking of Samarkand and being deserted by his Afghan allies, Jalal ad-Din was forced to flee to India.

He escaped and sought asylum in the Sultanate of Delhi but Iltutmish denied this to him in deference to the relationship with the Abbasid caliphs.