[1] In response, Ubayd Allah ibn Umar ordered the killing of all non-Arabs residing in Medina.
[7] Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ordered the non-Arabs to speak Arabic, and it was sometimes enforced.
[13] Umar ibn Abdulaziz introduced some reforms to improve the situation of non-Arab Muslims, also referred to as mawali.
[15] Non-Arab Muslims supported the Abbasid Revolution, officially ending the Umayyad Caliphate.
[25] However, the relations of the Umayyads with the Kurds greatly improved under Marwan II, who was born to a Kurdish mother.
Among them was a direct descendant of Marwan II, Adi ibn Musafir, the founder of Adawiyya, a heterodox tariqa which eventually evolved into Yazidism.
[26] The Umayyads began the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb led by Uqba ibn Nafi.
During his term as governor of Ifriqiya, Musa ibn Nusayr raided Berber settlements and enslaved them.
[31] Ismail ibn Abd Allah ibn Abi al-Muhajir became governor of Ifriqiya in 718, and lifted much of the restrictions on the Berbers and encouraged them to accept Islam, He was known for completing the conversion of the Berbers to Islam.
However, his successor, Yazid ibn Abi Muslim, who became governor in 720, undid most of the reforms, and reimposed the jizyah and other taxes on Berbers.
[32] Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik swore that he would send more troops to the Maghreb and stated that "I will not leave a single Berber compound without pitching beside it a tent of a tribesman from Qays or Tamim".
[44] Houari Boumédiène, drafted a new Algerian constitution in 1976, dedicating it to Arab nationalism and Islam.
[46] The Arab–Israeli conflict strengthened the role of Islam as a defining feature of Arab nationalism.
They claimed that Islam had given Arabs a "glorious past", unlike the "shameful present".
[49] Hassan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, believed that the real reason Islam declined was because of the transfer of power to non-Arabs.
[58] Saddam Hussein was another advocate of the ideology, especially after June 1993, in which he launched the Faith Campaign with much help from Izzat al-Douri.
[59] The Iraqi Ba'ath Party was Islamized, although it maintained its Arab nationalism and continued to encourage it.
[60] This was described as a "full-scale politicisation of Islam" by Saddam Hussein, and marked a shift away from the secular rule of the 1980s and 1970s.