The history surrounding the origin of the state, its ethnic composition, the modern cultural affiliation of the ruling dynasty, the reading of their names, and its borders are the subject of a historiographical dispute between Korea, China and Russia.

Geolsa Biu rejected the offer but was soon defeated by a Tang force led by Li Kaigu, while Dae Jungsang fled with his followers but also died around the same time.

[30][31][32][33] Another account of the events suggests that there was no rebellion at all, and the leader of the Sumo Mohe (Songmal Malgal) rendered assistance to the Tang by suppressing Khitan rebels.

[39] Chinese scholars consider that Mohe people form the ethnic majority of Balhae, and arguments for this opinion are also viewed positively in Russia[39] and in the West.

[43][44][45] Among the official dynastic history works, the New Book of Tang refers to Dae Joyeong and his state as Sumo Mohe (related to Jurchens and later Manchus) affiliated with Goguryeo.

[20]Russian scholars argue that the ethnic composition of Balhae cannot be determined with great precision because no materials exist that can confirm either the Chinese or Korean claims.

While Muye accepted Tang gifts and title upon his succession, he showed his independence by giving his father a posthumous temple name, Gowang/Gaowang (high king).

[63] To check Balhae's influence, the Tang appointed a chieftain of the Heishui Mohe (Heuksu Malgal) as prefect of Bozhou (in modern Khabarovsk) in 722.

A Balhae naval force led by Jang Mun-hyu (Zhang Wenxiu) attacked Dengzhou on the north shore of the Shandong Peninsula and killed its prefect.

[65][66] Additionally, Dengzhou was the center of maritime trade routes in East Asia, and was the locale where both Silla and Balhae envoys stayed when coming to pay tribute to the Tang Emperor.

He also established Shangjing/Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 756,[78] stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which was expanded temporarily.

[83][60][94] Though Balhae was lost, a great portion of the royalty and aristocracy fled to Goryeo, including Dae Gwang-hyeon, the last crown prince.

[108] Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong, according to Korean scholars.

[109]: 32–33 [c] Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeo population is speculated to have become dominant[111][112] in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife[113][114][115] since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms.

[121] The Balhae people played a pivotal role in the politics, literature, and society of northern China under the Liao and Jin dynasties.

He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty (興遼國/흥료국).

[127] In 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin.

The Jin sent two Balhae representatives to recruit "people from their home area" while bearing a message that "The Jurchen and Bohai are originally of the same family; as we rise in arms to smite the wicked, [harm] will not unjustly reach the innocent.

Over the years, groups of Balhae who were once moved outside to areas near the Liao supreme or central capital regions were resettled east of the Taihang Mountains, which was completed by 1141.

[140] As Balhae descendants became firmly incorporated into the apparatus of the Jurchen-led state, many individual Balhae-descended officials willingly chose to self-identify as Chinese.

[151] A record of the journey of Hong Hao (1088–1155) in Jin territory describes the Balhae people as primarily martial and not adherent to Confucian norms.

"[154] On the other hand, the Russian historian Polutov believes that Goguryeo descendants did not have political dominance, and the ruling system was open to all people equally.

[162][163] Balhae's military organization consisted of a central army divided into ten guard units (wi, 衛) responsible for protecting the royal palace and the capital.

Balhae expanded its territory by conquering the Mohe (Malgal) tribes in Manchuria, Primorsky Krai, the Amur River region, and along the coast of the Sea of Japan, during which many fortresses were built.

Since this was an early period when the system was still being established, remnants of the former Goguryeo dynasty's institutions were still present in many areas, and the division of the entire country was still incomplete.

Based on Wang Zhongwu's report, it can be inferred that Balhae's military system also adopted the Tang Dynasty's model, with both Weijun and local militias (Fubing).

Military titles such as Langjiang/Rangjang and Biejiang/Byeoljang (别將) emerged during King Dae Muye's reign, indicating that Balhae had already implemented an army system modeled after the Tang Dynasty with central and local forces.

[164] Naturally, during periods of military control combined with production and conquest, even the elderly, children, and all men in a household might have been conscripted to meet the demands of external wars.

Balhae also produced fine iron and copper wares, silk and linen textiles, and ceramics, including Sancai pottery developed under the influence of that of the Tang.

[177] Balhae had a high level of craftsmanship and engaged in trade with neighboring polities such as the Göktürks, Nara Japan, Later Silla and the Tang dynasty.