During this period, the ruling Mamluks were generally of Circassian origin, drawn from the Christian population of the northern Caucasus.

However, Barsbay also introduced a number of economic policies that were damaging in the long term, such as a state monopoly on the spice trade.

Sayf ad-Din Inal came to power in 1453 and had friendly relations with the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II, who captured Constantinople later that year, causing great celebration in Egypt.

[citation needed] He died in 1496, leaving several hundred thousand ducats in debts to the great Venetian trading families.

[citation needed] Following another several years of political instability and succession disputes, the last major Mamluk sultan was Qansuh al-Ghuri, who came to power in 1501.

While he attempted some reforms, including the introduction of the first military regiment with gunpowder weapons, he was unable to fully integrate them into the Mamluk army and he could not fix the country's economic problems.

While the governors were appointed by the Ottoman sultan, the mamluks vied for influence within the country and held many high political positions.

They were finally destroyed and exterminated by Muhammad Ali Pasha during his rise to power in Egypt in the early 19th century.