I'jaz

[2] The first works about the I'jaz of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the Mu'tazila circles, which emphasized only its literary aspect, and were adopted by other religious groups.

The claim that it was a miracle was reinforced by the emphasis that, despite some rumors to the contrary, Muhammad could not have achieved these feats without being able to read and write, and that this success could only come with Divine help.

Angelika Neuwirth lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of I'jaz: The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran;[4] In the context of the emergence of the theory of "proofs of prophecy" (dâ'il an-nubûvva) in Islamic theology, proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets, thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians; Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian Shu'ubiyya movement, etc.

[7] Thus, some Muslims may adopt a more flexible lifestyle in the face of the rules imposed by religious leaders on society based on the apparent meaning of the expressions of the Quran,[8] and some religious leadersowner of great claims such as being mahdi, mujaddid, or "being chosen" such as Said Nursi, may claim that some verses of the Quran are actually talking about themselves or their works[9] and giving good news to them.

[17] Whilst western views typically ascribe social, ideological, propagandistic, or military reasons for the success of early Islam, Muslim sources view the literary quality of the Qur'an as a decisive factor for the adoption of the Islamic creed and its ideology, resulting in its spread and development in the 7th century.

The majority of opinions was around eloquence of the Qur'an are in both wording and meaning as its speech does not form to poetry nor prose commonly expressed in all languages.

He wished to impress his audience with the need to study not only theology but also grammatical details and literary theory in order to improve their understanding of the inimitability of the Qur'an.

[17] A- Murtaza (d. 1044 CE) had similar views, turning to divine intervention as the only viable explanation as to why the challenge was not met.

According to Abd al-Jabbr, Arabs chose not to compete with Muhammad in the literary field but on the battlefield and this was another reason that they recognized the superiority of the Qur'an.

Ibn Qutaybah considered 'brevity' which he defined as "jam' al-kathir mi ma'anih fi l-qalil min lafzih" (collection of many ideas in a few words) as one aspect of Qur'anic miraculousness.

He refers to verse 29:20 which says "Travel throughout the earth and see how He brings life into being" and 3:190 which says "In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day there are indeed signs for men of understanding" and concludes that these verses do not have any specific scientific content, rather they encourage believers to observe natural phenomena and reflect on the complexity of the universe.

[36] I'jaz has also been examined from the vantage point of its contribution to literary theory by Rebecca Ruth Gould,[37] Lara Harb,[38] and others.

Some researchers have proposed an evolutionary reading of the verses related to the creation of man in the Qur'an and then considered these meanings as examples of scientific miracles.

[39] In Islamic theology, Muhammad's illiteracy is a way of emphasizing that he was a transparent medium for divine revelation and a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood since the illiterate prophet could not have composed the eloquent poetry and prose of the Qur'an.

[46] The medieval exegete Al Tabari (d. 923 CE) maintained that the term induced two meanings: firstly, the inability to read or write in general and secondly, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures.

[48] On another occasion, the Sira of Ibn Ishaq records that Muhammad wrote a letter with secret instructions to be opened after two days on the expedition to Nakhla in 2 A.H. Alan Jones has discussed these incidents and the use of Arabic writing in the earliest Islamic period in some detail.

[49] Fakhr Al-Razi, the 12th century Islamic theologian, has expressed his idea is his book Tafsir Al Razi:[50] German orientalist Theodor Nöldeke criticized the Qur'anic text as careless and imperfect, pointing out claimed linguistic defects.

[47] Ruthven states that "The fact of Muhammad's illiteracy would in no way constitute proof of the Qur'an's miraculous origin as the great pre-Islamic poets were illiterate.