Classical theism
Rooted in the ancient Greek philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, classical theism presents God as a being who is immutable, impassible, and entirely self-sufficient.
The early Church Fathers, like Augustine, incorporated classical theistic ideas into Christian theology, establishing a framework that was later refined by medieval thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas.
Similarly, Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna and Al-Ghazali adopted classical theistic concepts to articulate a vision of God as utterly singular and beyond human comprehension.
Philosophers and theologians have challenged the coherence of attributes like divine simplicity and immutability, questioning how an unchanging God can interact with a dynamic world or respond to human prayer.
Plotinus introduced the concept of "The One", an ineffable, transcendent source from which all reality emanates, which had a profound impact on early Christian theologians.
Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo integrated these Neoplatonic ideas with Christian doctrine, emphasizing God's simplicity, immutability, and omnipotence.
Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica, provided a comprehensive synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, developing key doctrines such as divine simplicity, immutability, and eternity.
[3] The Renaissance and Reformation periods saw continued engagement with classical theistic ideas, particularly as scholars revisited ancient texts and integrated them with contemporary religious debates.
The work of these periods laid the groundwork for ongoing theological and philosophical discussions, ensuring the continued relevance of classical theism in both academic and religious contexts.
These attributes include divine simplicity, aseity, immutability, eternality, omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence, each of which has been developed and refined through centuries of philosophical and theological discourse.
The timelessness view, championed by thinkers like Boethius and Aquinas, posits that God's actions are not constrained by time, allowing Him to fully know and interact with temporal events without being bound by them.
[3] In Protestant traditions, while classical theism remains influential, there has been some divergence, particularly in the emphasis on God's personal relationship with humanity and the role of divine revelation through Scripture.
In his Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides argues for a conception of God that is fundamentally aligned with classical theistic principles, particularly divine simplicity, immutability, and omnipotence.
Maimonides was deeply influenced by Aristotelian philosophy and sought to reconcile it with Jewish theology, leading to a vision of God that is transcendent, unknowable in His essence, and yet intimately involved in the governance of the universe.
[15] Avicenna's "Metaphysics" in The Book of Healing presents a conception of God as a necessary being, whose existence is identical to His essence, aligning closely with the principles of divine simplicity and aseity.
Islamic classical theism, like its Jewish counterpart, emphasizes the absolute oneness and transcendence of God (tawhid), rejecting any form of multiplicity within the divine essence.
[21] This allegory was set up in order to explain that in classical theism, God is the Absolute Singular Being, timeless source, origin, and uncaused cause of all states of existence, just as in integrity.
[citation needed] Classical theism, while deeply influential in the development of Western religious thought, has been the subject of significant philosophical and theological critiques.
These criticisms often center around the coherence of classical theism's core attributes, especially in light of modern philosophical developments and alternative theistic models.
Philosophers like David Hume and J. L. Mackie have argued that the existence of evil makes it difficult, if not impossible, to maintain belief in the classical theistic conception of God.
Process theology, influenced by the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, rejects the classical theistic view of God as immutable and impassible.
[26] Despite these challenges, defenders of classical theism have responded by refining their arguments and exploring ways to reconcile these traditional attributes with modern philosophical insights.
The ongoing dialogue between proponents of classical theism and its critics ensures that these debates remain central to contemporary discussions in philosophy of religion and theology.
Philosophers such as Alvin Plantinga and William Lane Craig have defended the coherence and relevance of classical theism in light of modern challenges, such as the problem of evil and the implications of scientific discoveries.
