Conducting

They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals,[4] planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media.

Through examining historical records- notably hieroglyphics, there is evidence that points to many early societies utilizing visual and aural cuing to maintain a sense of beat, rhythm, and shape.

Documented as early as the 11th century, the practice entailed a designated leader using subtle motions of their fingers and/or hands to dictate melodic shape and contour.

As notated rhythm and beat as well as more complex rhythmic figures became more prominent in the early baroque era, performers relied on other indications to be able to understand the intent behind their parts.

Beginning in the sixteenth century, the role of the Kapellmeister in Germany represented someone who audibly tapped the beat on a hard surface using a staff, rolled sheet of paper, or other object and took many other forms throughout Europe.

Having an audible source of beat allowed ensemble members to maintain consistency and execute rhythms with precision before the invention of the metronome many years later.

Moving out of the eighteenth century, it was clear that music was growing too complicated and performances too refined, to rely purely on aural skills to stay in time.

Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr, Carl Maria von Weber, Louis-Antoine Jullien and Felix Mendelssohn, all of whom were also composers.

Prominent conductors who did not or do not use a baton include Pierre Boulez, Kurt Masur, James Conlon, Yuri Temirkanov,[6] Leopold Stokowski, Vasily Safonov, Eugene Ormandy (for a period), and Dimitri Mitropoulos.

[7] The composers Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner attained greatness as conductors, and they wrote two of the earliest essays dedicated to the subject.

Wagner's one-time champion Hans von Bülow (1830–1894) was particularly celebrated as a conductor, although he also maintained his initial career as a pianist, an instrument on which he was regarded as among the greatest performers.

In his posts as head of (sequentially) the Bavarian State Opera, Meiningen Court Orchestra, and Berlin Philharmonic he brought a level of nuance and subtlety to orchestral performance previously heard only in solo instrumental playing, and in doing so made a profound impression on young artists like Richard Strauss, who at age 20 served as his assistant, and Felix Weingartner, who came to disapprove of his interpretations but was deeply impressed by his orchestral standards.

Technical standards were brought to new levels by the next generation of conductors, including Arthur Nikisch (1855–1922) who succeeded Bülow as music director of the Berlin Philharmonic in 1895.

The film confirms reports that he made particularly mesmerizing use of eye contact and expression to communicate with an orchestra; such later conductors as Fritz Reiner stated that this aspect of his technique had a strong influence on their own.

Toscanini played in orchestras under Giuseppe Verdi and made his debut conducting Aida in 1886, filling in at the last minute for an indisposed conductor.

But Toscanini's repertory was wide, and it was in his interpretations of the German symphonists Beethoven and Brahms that he was particularly renowned and influential, favoring stricter and faster tempi than a conductor like Bülow or Wagner.

Furtwängler, whom many regard as the greatest interpreter of Wagner (although Toscanini was also admired in this composer) and Bruckner, conducted Beethoven and Brahms with a good deal of inflection of tempo—but generally in a manner that revealed the structure and direction of the music particularly clearly.

He was an accomplished composer as well as performer; and he was a disciple of the theorist Heinrich Schenker, who emphasized concern for underlying long-range harmonic tensions and resolutions in a piece, a strength of Furtwängler's conducting.

Along with his interest in the large-scale, Furtwängler also shaped the details of the piece in a particularly compelling and expressive manner.The two men had very different techniques: Toscanini's was Italianate, with a long, large baton and clear beats (often not using his left hand); Furtwängler beat time with less apparent precision, because he wanted a more rounded sound (although it is a myth that his technique was vague; many musicians have attested that he was easy to follow in his own way).

9—he tried to get the orchestra to produce an "ugly" tone in a certain passage in which he believed it suited the expressive meaning of the music (the first horn player refused and finally agreed to let an understudy play instead of himself).

Nonetheless, conductors' techniques still show a great deal of variety, particularly with the use of the left hand, facial and eye expression, and body language.

"[11] While Mexico has produced several major international conductors, Alondra de la Parra has become the first Mexican-born woman to attain distinction in the profession.

Notable black conductors include Henry Lewis, Dean Dixon, James DePreist, Paul Freeman, and Michael Morgan.

The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble, and control the interpretation and pacing of the music.

Conducting requires an understanding of the elements of musical expression (tempo, dynamics, articulation) and the ability to communicate them effectively to an ensemble.

The hand traces a shape in the air in every bar (measure) depending on the time signature, indicating each beat with a change from downward to upward motion.

In some cases, such as where there has been little rehearsal time to prepare a piece, a conductor may discreetly indicate how the bars of music will be beat immediately before the start of the movement by holding up their fingers in front of their chest (so only the performers can see).

Some conductors may have a significant public relations role, giving interviews to the local news channel and appearing on television talk shows to promote the upcoming season or particular concerts.

Many conductors learn to play a keyboard instrument such as the piano or the pipe organ, a skill that helps them to be able to analyze symphonies and try out their interpretations before they have access to an orchestra to conduct.

[19] Conductors are often trained with similar techniques, focusing on maintaining relaxation and balance in the upper body, as forcing movements can lead to jarred nerves, muscles, and joints.