[citation needed] A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal.

[18] There were no PhDs in Germany before the 1650s (when they gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree; arguably, one of the earliest German PhD holders is Erhard Weigel (Dr. phil.

[19][20][21] This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, founded in 1810 and controlled by the Prussian government.

Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium, by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities.

][25] These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States.

[33] Nine years later, in 1861, Yale University awarded three PhDs: to Eugene Schuyler in philosophy and psychology, Arthur Williams Wright in physics, and James Morris Whiton, Jr. in classics.

After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees.

In order to submit a successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal, and a personal statement are often required.

These included a prediction by economist Richard B. Freeman that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earned less than or equal to an average construction worker ($38,600 a year).

[59] On the other hand, it was understood by all his peers that he was a world leading scientist with many accomplishments already under his belt during his graduate study years and he was eligible to gain the degree at any given moment.

[62] Others apply for funds to CONICET, the national public body of scientific and technical research, which typically awards more than a thousand scholarships each year for this purpose, thus guaranteeing many PhD candidates remain within the system.

Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.

[70] Admission to a doctoral programme at a university in Canada typically requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability.

[71] An application package typically includes a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample or Graduate Record Examinations scores.

The PhD degree is only received after a successful defense of the candidate's thesis is performed (four or five years after the enrollment), most of the time also requiring the most important results having been published in at least one peer-reviewed high-impact international journal.

A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately 4–5 years of research (amounting to 3–5 scientific articles, some of which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies.

[82] Depending on the university, doctoral students (Doktoranden) can be required to attend formal classes or lectures, some of them also including exams or other scientific assignments, in order to get one or more certificates of qualification (Qualifikationsnachweise).

[85] After clearing these tests, the shortlisted candidates are required to appear for an interview with the available PhD supervisor and give presentations of their research proposal (plan of work or synopsis).

During study, candidates must submit progress reports and after successful completion of the coursework, are required to give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend their thesis in an open defense viva-voce.

[105] Owing to the influence of British colonialism, South African higher education bears profound similarities to the modern UK universities system.

[109] The social standing of doctors in Spain was evidenced by the fact that Philip III let PhD holders to take seat and cover their heads during an act in the University of Salamanca in which the King took part so as to recognise their merits.

The concession is remembered in solemn ceremonies held by the University by telling Doctors to take seat and cover their heads as a reminder of that royal leave.

[119] Students are first accepted onto an MPhil or MRes programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress, this is sometimes referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status.

If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, they may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree, e.g. at King's College London and the University of Manchester.

PhD students from outside the EU/EEA or other exempt countries are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for courses in sensitive areas where research could be used for weapons development.

Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £12–14 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.

[134] Inadvertently, this leads to significant pressure on the candidate to minimise the scope of projects with a view on thesis submission, regardless of quality, and discourage time spent on activities that would otherwise further the impact of the research on the community (e.g., publications in high-impact journals, seminars, workshops).

These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard PhD, and for the university, they are a means of gaining an extra years' fees from public sources.

Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it,[citation needed] especially in the forms of tuition waivers/stipends.

[146] In the same way as PhD degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) allows its holders to reach the level of the Docent.