Deception
1617), offers multiple examples of the bait-and-switch and fraud techniques involving the stimulation of greed in Ming-dynasty China.
The deceiver typically perceives less understanding and intimacy from the relationship, in that they see their partner as less empathetic and more distant.
[12] In comparison, deception is more likely to occur in casual relationships and in dating where commitment level and length of acquaintanceship is often much lower.
Infidelity is impacted by attachment style, relationship satisfaction, executive function, sociosexual orientation, personality traits, and gender.
The level of executive control that an individual possesses is impacted by development and experience and can be improved through training and practice.
[22][23] Those individuals that show a higher level of executive control can more easily influence/control their thoughts and behaviors in relation to potential threats to an ongoing relationship which can result in paying less attention to threats to the current relationship (other potential romantic mates).
[25] Individuals with a less restrictive sociosexual orientation (more likely to partake in casual sex) are more likely to engage in infidelity.
[26] Research on the use of deception in online dating has shown that people are generally truthful about themselves with the exception of physical attributes to appear more attractive.
He stated that the organizations "goal is to reduce the amount of deception and untruths and unethical behaviors that exist in some facets of religion".
[36] For an example, Taqiya is an Islamic juridical term for the cases in which a Muslim is allowed to lie under the circumstance when need to deny their faith due to force or when faced with persecution.
Ortmann and Hertwig (1998) note that "deception can strongly affect the reputation of individual labs and the profession, thus contaminating the participant pool".
Christensen's (1988) review of the literature found "that research participants do not perceive that they are harmed and do not seem to mind being misled".
In reality the study looked at the participants' willingness to obey commands, even when that involved inflicting pain upon another person.
[47] Use of deception raises many problems of research ethics and it is strictly regulated by professional bodies such as the American Psychological Association.
[18] Through digital deception, people are easily capable of deceiving others whether it be for their own benefit or to ensure their safety.
By creating a false identity catfishers deceive those online to build relationships, friendships, or connections without revealing who they truly are as a person.
[53] Deception detection is extremely difficult unless it is a blatant or obvious lie or contradicts something the other knows to be true.
While it is difficult to deceive a person over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners.
Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange.
If a response to a question has a lot disturbances, less talking time, repeated words, and poor logical structure, then the person may be lying.
Vocal cues such as frequency height and variation may also provide meaningful clues to deceit.
[62] Fear specifically causes heightened arousal in liars, which manifests in more frequent blinking, pupil dilation, speech disturbances, and a higher pitched voice.
The liars that experience guilt have been shown to make attempts at putting distance between themselves and the deceptive communication, producing "nonimmediacy cues".
These can be verbal or physical, including speaking in more indirect ways and showing an inability to maintain eye contact with their conversation partners.
Streeter, Krauss, Geller, Olson, and Apple (1977) have assessed that fear and anger, two emotions widely associated with deception, cause greater arousal than grief or indifference, and note that the amount of stress one feels is directly related to the frequency of the voice.
