Doctorate

[1] The right to grant a licentia docendi (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee.

[7][8][9][10] Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).

For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders.

Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance.

The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the MD at Kings College (now Columbia University) after the medical school's founding in 1767.

The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding.

The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation".

In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi, Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi, "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime.

While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement.

In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like "DCL, honoris causa", "HonLLD", or "LittD h.c.".

Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge.

Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years.

In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships.

In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente [pt] and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam.

The student must: The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors.

After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic.

[93] In 1954 (for the sciences) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding Doctorat de troisième cycle degree was created on the model of the American Ph.D. with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a Master of Arts, and their Doctorat d'État.

Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work.

The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2+1⁄2 hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present.

The most important degrees are: In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore, European Research Council decided in 2010 that such Dr. med.

[114] Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa.

Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio.

The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defence session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the examining committee).

After formal approval of the thesis and the defence by the examining committee in a closed discussion, the session is resumed and the promotor grants the degree and hands over the diploma to the candidate, and usually congratulates the candidate and gives a personal speech praising the work of the young doctor (laudatio), before the session is formally closed.

[120] Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch title dr. if their grade is approved as equivalent by the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs[121] though according to the opportunity principle, little effort is spent in identifying such fraud.

Doctorate is awarded within specified brach and discipline of science or art by university or reaserch insitute accredited by the minister responsible for higher education.

The title was abolished with the end of the Empire in 1917 and revived by the USSR in 1934 along with a new (lower) complementary degree of a Candidate [Doctor] of the Sciences' (Russian: Кандидат наук).

A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted Apto Cum Laude for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado).

[38] Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies.

Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor.