Education in Luxembourg
[4] The following universities have campuses or outposts in Luxembourg: Higher education is also offered by several lycées techniques, in the areas of business and management, arts, and healthcare.
It was founded as the Jesuit College (Collège des Jésuites) in Luxembourg city in 1603, and from this it derives its nickname "Kolleisch".
The King-Grand Duke therefore sought to prevent young Luxembourgers from attending Belgian universities, which were hotbeds of anti-Dutch revolutionary sentiment.
Belgian academic degrees were no longer recognised in Luxembourg from 1832, and an 1835 decree forced Luxembourgish students to study exclusively in the states of the German Confederation.
[11]: 44 When the country became independent in 1839 (while remaining under personal union with the Dutch king), it needed its own administrative and political institutions: one major problem was the education of future elites, who would replace the foreign functionaries and play a key role in society.
The Constitution of 1841 allowed a free choice of universities, and laid the foundation for an education policy that took account of the specificities of the country.
While it was generally agreed that establishing a fully-fledged university in the Grand-Duchy was not viable, the question of how to organise higher education was a divisive one.
It was clear that, far from just being a demonstration of academic knowledge, degrees were seen as a test of one's ability to exercise public office, and therefore it was only seen as fitting that they should be brought under tight state control.
[11] The authorities decided, as a minimum, to re-establish the cours supérieurs at the Athénée, which were, however, just a pale imitation of higher education.
These changes, accompanied by passionate debates, concerned the subject matter to be examined, the creation of new degrees for certain professions, and an adaptation to the realities of university education: there were cases where the state prescribed the attendance of courses that were no longer offered anywhere.
They were described in 1882 by the Athénée's director as a "hybrid institution" between secondary and tertiary education; twenty years later, the jury for pharmacy termed them a "mockery, a caricature of university courses.
But this was only a nominal division: the science section of the cours supérieurs, for example, often consisted of lessons combined with the two highest years of the industrial school.
[11] The failure rates in the exams by the Luxembourgish juries was relatively low in the beginning, but increased steadily to reach 50% in 1901-1902.
Some contemporaries saw this as a result of inherent flaws in the Luxembourgish system: the exams did not take into account the subject matter taught in the universities, and the examiners themselves were not up to speed with the latest research.
The problem was most serious for the subjects not taught in the cours supérieurs, such as law, medicine, the profession of notary, pharmacy, and veterinary studies.
To resolve this issue, professional persons were appointed to juries: high-ranking state functionaries, practising doctors, and notables.
In the late 19th century, the political class became aware that the traditional system of education was not well-adapted to the needs of an industrial society.
The government of Baron Félix de Blochausen (1874–1885) enacted a decisive reform of primary education when it introduced obligatory schooling over the opposition of conservative deputies.
The law also provided for a single system of public schools, and made it the state's duty to organise education.
[12] In 1891, the Soeurs de la Doctrine Chrétienne had responded to the government's invitation by opening a domestic agricultural school for young girls.
In the latter half of the 19th century, Echternach and Diekirch had each received a so-called "pro-gymnasium", which operated under the supervision of the headteacher of the Athénée.
[11]: 46–47 The state and the middle-class liberals who ran the government steadfastly refused to allow the opening of non-state schools, as demanded by the Church.
Around 20% of the secondary school professors were clerics, and this did not include the lay members of the Jesuits (Jésuites en courte robe) alleged by Brasseur.
Students in the cours supérieurs were obliged to participate in religious processions, and to attend Mass and confession every Sunday and Thursday.
In 1903 the Athénée's director tried to forbid students from attending a conference on the subject of the formation of the world, given by a Brussels professor.
To some, it appeared that maintaining the cours supérieurs was a means of keeping a check on the students' ideology, whereas those who studied abroad might pick up foreign, radical ideas.
Luxembourgish priests campaigned for this to be in Luxembourg, emphasising the benefits this would bring to the country, and the government pledged its help, but the Chamber of Deputies was opposed.
1965 saw the creation of middle schools (écoles moyennes): these were intended to cater to young people not quite suited for a university education, in order to prepare them for mid-level careers in the administration or the private sector, and to take the weight off the over-crowded Lycées.
May 1968 also saw unrest in Luxembourg: the students of the cours supérieurs went on strike, demanding a reform of higher education and the awarding of academic degrees.
[10] It was under the second Werner-Schaus ministry that the system of academic awards dating back to 1848 was finally abolished, fulfilling the demands of the 1968 students.
