Maximilian Sforza, the son of the deposed Duke of Milan, was compelled to concede nearly a quarter of the lands previously owned by his father in exchange for papal intervention.

[3] In the aftermath of the French victory at Marignano in 1515, Francis I reclaimed the Duchy of Milan, restoring it to its original boundaries and effectively removing Parma from papal authority.

He took the name Paul III and promptly engaged in nepotism by appointing two of his grandsons, Alessandro Farnese and Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora, as cardinals.

[7] The family's ascendance persisted with the marriage of Ottavio Farnese, son of Pier Luigi, to Margaret of Austria, the illegitimate daughter of Charles V and Jeanne van der Gheyst, in 1538.

Despite opposition from prelates concerned about losing two important cities, the pope renewed his family's claim to Parma and Piacenza for Pier Luigi, as he had failed to secure the entirety of Milan.

He proceeded with the policy of weakening the nobility, and in 1582, he issued a decree for confiscating the lands belonging to the Landi family, who had been lords of Piacenza and had participated in his father's assassination.

[21] Ranuce ruled the duchy with an iron fist for thirty years and was responsible for the economic and urban development of Parma through initiatives such as the construction of the theater at the Palazzo della Pilotta and the establishment of four fortified bastions.

He relocated his court closer to France under the influence of Jacopo Gaufrido [fr], a French official in the employ of the Farnese family, who was suspected of acting on behalf of Richelieu.

The infant Philip, who had been married since August 26, 1739, to Elisabeth of France, daughter of King Louis XV and Marie Leszczyńska (who was twelve years old at the time),[46] ascended to the dukedom of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla.

[48] Keralio, meanwhile, served as an intermediary facilitating interactions between the French encyclopedic scholars D'Alembert, Condorcet, and Bossut and the Milanese philosophers Cesare Beccaria, Pietro Verri, and Paolo Frisi.

[49] The duchy attracted artists such as the sculptor Boudard [fr] and the architect Ennemond Alexandre Petitot, who contributed to enhance Parma through his urban designs, including Stradone and the casino that bears his name.

[57] The two powers sent the Spaniard José Augustin de Llano [fr] as minister, with explicit instructions to rectify the chronic financial deficiencies of the duchy, which had been exacerbated by the profligate lifestyle of the ducal couple.

[58] He was replaced by Italians Giuseppe Sacco and Lorenzo Pompeo Canossa, who continued the policy of enlightened despotism but with a national character, thereby ending Spanish influence in the duchy.

Ferdinand was unable to meet the French demands, which included the payment of two million francs, the provision of 1,200 draft horses, 400 for the dragoons, 100 saddles for officers, 1,000 tons of wheat, 500 of oats, 2,000 oxen, and 5,000 pairs of shoes.

[63] As a result of diplomatic negotiations between France and Spain, Parma was transferred to French control, allowing them to occupy the entire Po plain in exchange for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.

[65] In his final moments, Ferdinand designated his son, Louis, as the heir to the Duchy of Parma, appointing Count Francesco Schizzati and Marquis Cesare Ventura as regents.

On January 28, 1806, Napoleon recalled Moreau and replaced him with General Junot,[70][71] who was appointed governor-general, along with the administrator-prefect Hugues Nardon [fr], who had previously administered the Montenotte department.

[77] Following Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, Austrian troops, aided by Neapolitan forces under Murat and led by General Nugent, advanced from Modena and entered Parma on February 13, 1814.

However, the coalition forces were able to regain control of the city permanently, forming a provisional regency[67] with Marquis Cesare Ventura, Prince Casimiro Meli Lupi di Soragna, and Count Filippo Magawly as leaders.

[83] Article 5 of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which was signed on April 11, 1814, states the following: "The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla shall henceforth be held in full ownership and sovereignty by Her Majesty the Empress Marie-Louise.

On June 16, 1847, as students and professors celebrated the anniversary of the election of reformist Pope Pius IX, some assailants attacked the palace of Bishop Neuschel, whom they held responsible for his foreign nationality.

Baron Philipp von Neumann, an advisor to the emperor who had been sent from Vienna to Parma, informed Metternich that, following the death of the duchess, liberals had attempted to stage an insurrection.

The duke's son initiated a repressive action, while Charles II, concerned by the magnitude of the rebellion, ordered a ceasefire and appealed to the populace to "await the wise decisions of their Father and Sovereign",[108] promising a constitution.

The members of the provisional government included Counts Giromola Cantelli and Luigi Sanvitale, lawyers Ferdinando Maestri and Pietri Gioia, and Professor Pietro Pellegrini.

[113] The crown prince, who had been appointed major general by his father, fled to join Charles Albert but was imprisoned in Cremona and held for several months in Milan.

The coexistence between the occupying forces and the population became increasingly challenging, leading to the proclamation of martial law and the implementation of stringent measures, including the death penalty for individuals found in possession of weapons.

[117] On 14 March 1849, Charles II abdicated definitively in favour of his son Ferdinand-Charles, who, from London, accepted a commission that assumed administrative and executive powers until his arrival.

[113] He was a highly controversial figure, intelligent but eccentric, and one of his first actions was to intervene against members of the regency and establish a commission tasked with investigating the expenses of the revolutionary government.

[118] The duke asserted his intention to pursue autonomy from Austria, a relationship he perceived as constraining and a source of reliability in the face of external aggression or internal uprisings.

[121] In Parma, taxes were increased, and the inhabitants were subjected to surveillance by Police Chief Bassetti, who issued numerous orders for corporal punishment under the duke's demands.