Iatmul language

There are about 8,400 Iatmul traditionally organized in villages, whereas a total amount of 46,000 speakers is estimated.

[3] The inhabitants of the villages are trilingual, being fluent with Tok Pisin, good with Iatmul and having some knowledge of English.

Tok Pisin is also the first language of the youngest children, despite efforts to reverse this trend.

[4] An extensive grammar of Iatmul has been recently written by Gerd Jendraschek as a postdoctoral thesis.

Flexion is predominantly suffixed and very regular, whereas the phonological processes are the most complex ones within the language.

Stems often change their form while multiple-morpheme structures can become so coalescent that they are difficult to segment.

[7] Iatmul has masculine and feminine gender marking as well as singular, dual and plural numbers.

[9] Smaller word classes include personal pronouns, demonstratives, postpositions, quantifiers, interrogatives as well as proclauses (yes, no), while there are no clause-linking conjunctions.

The latter also tend to be more open than the fortis stops, which means that they can become taps, fricatives, or approximants in post-sonorant position.

In the following example, both vowel fusion and onset elision are operating at the same time, making the meaning of the final form hard to recognize.

[12] wa-ka-asay-PRS-SR→ wa-asay-PRS.SR→ wa: [12] wa-ka-a → wa-a → wa:say-PRS-SR {} say-PRS.SR {} {}Epenthesis can be observed when for example focus is marked with the suffix -a: kadawho-aFOC(3.SG.M)→ kada-n-a [19] kada -a → kada-n-awho FOC(3.SG.M) {} {}Reduction mostly happens quantitatively, so that the vowels are shorted in their length.

The meanings of words are not autonomous, but influenced by factors like vocal length, syllable structure and speed of enunciation.

Information regarding actions like the direction, the manner or temporal relations are expressed via derivation of the verbs.

[26] kiya-a-di'bring-PRS-3SG.Mkiya-a-di'bring-PRS-3SG.M'he brings'kiya-Ø-di'bring-PST-3SG.Mkiya-Ø-di'bring-PST-3SG.M'he brought'[26]The expression of future is covered by the irrealis mood with the allomorphs -kiya,-ikiya (after roots ending with -a) and it' short form -ika occurring in fast speech.

[37] As pronouns and proper nouns are always definite, they are marked with dativ case when they are used as transitive objects.

[38] When definite nouns referring to humans are transitive objects, the marker is preferred but not obligatory.

[40] Beside transitive objects, other semantic roles like recipient, addressee, theme and reason can be marked with the dative marker.

[43] Its main function is to mark locations, in some contexts including time expressions.

[43] wanD3.SG.Mgusi'ga-babox-LOCtastay:SRda-bathing-LOCki'-kaeat-DEPli'-di'stay-3SG.Mwan gusi'ga-ba ta da-ba ki'-ka li'-di'D3.SG.M box-LOC stay:SR thing-LOC eat-DEP stay-3SG.M'He was already eating the things that were in that box.

Kinship terms like walaga ‘ancestor’, nyagei 'sister' or ta’kwa 'wife' can be plural marked.

[58] gepmavillagegepmavillagekalibi'kcarry-2/3DUmi'naonlykanD1.SG.Mmissionary-na~namissionary-GEN~PLsuleschoolki'nki-a-nD1.M.SG.NR-3SG-Mwa-asay-DEPwa-disay-3PLgepma gepma kalibi'k mi'na kan missionary-na~na sule ki'nki-a-n wa-a wa-divillage village carry-2/3DU only D1.SG.M missionary-GEN~PL school D1.M.SG.NR-3SG-M say-DEP say-3PL'after the two had brought it to every village, they said "these are the missionaries' schools" '[57]The plural suffix -du which is used on kinship terms can be used on proper names to express ‘person together with people related to this person’ (associative plural).

[59] Magina-duMagina-PLya-a-dicome-PRS-3PLMagina-du ya-a-diMagina-PL come-PRS-3PL'Magina and her mother/family are coming'[54]Counting in Iatmul is accomplished in mixture of a quinary, decimal and vigesimal system.

[24] The canonical sentence structure is SOV: Adverb - Subject - Adjunct - Object - Verb[63] BablatodayRuthRuthAaguvalioppositegaai-bahouse-LOCwun-kak1SG-DATni’ma[bigki’ki’dafood]Okuk-kiya-li’.do-IRR-3SG.FBabla Ruth aguvali gaai-ba wun-kak ni’ma ki’ki’da kuk-kiya-li’.today RuthA opposite house-LOC 1SG-DAT [big food]O do-IRR-3SG.F'Ruth will prepare a big meal for me in the house on the other side.

'[24]The expression of negation is accomplished by different morphological structures which often are etymologically unrelated.

Therefore, negation is expressed by a periphrastic construction in which the suffix -lapman 'without' is attached to the predicate and combined with the auxiliary yi 'go'.

[75] guwaterki’-j-ay-a-n-baeat-3PL-IRR-SR-NR-LOCsi’laamnoisesi’-kiya-dishoot-IRR-3PLgu ki’-j-ay-a-n-ba si’laam si’-kiya-diwater eat-3PL-IRR-SR-NR-LOC noise shoot-IRR-3PL'If they drink, they will make a lot of noise'[75]The second type of subordinate clauses in Iatmul are realised by switch-reference and allow for clause chains.

[81] Di’-kat3SG.M-DATyi-kago-DEPta’bakhandyi-kago-DEPdi’n-a3SG.M-GENgusa-maan-bapaddle-leg-LOCkut-di’.touch-3SG.MDi’-kat yi-ka ta’bak yi-ka di’n-a gusa-maan-ba kut-di’.3SG.M-DAT go-DEP hand go-DEP 3SG.M-GEN paddle-leg-LOC touch-3SG.M(The dog) going to him touching (him) he touched the back of his leg.

[84] JoachimJoachimyuwisi’k'-arice-FOCkut-d-ado-3SG.M-FOCJoachim yuwisi’k'-a kut-d-aJoachim rice-FOC do-3SG.M-FOC'Joachim has cooked rice'[84]In all these cases, the marking of noun and verb indicates that the focus constructions must have emerged from cleft-constructions (hence the alternative glossing in the following examples with 3SG and SR).

Therefore, some grammatical categories (like optative, imperative) which are expressed by suffixation can not be realised when the sentence is marked with respect to focus.

[86] Questions which are asking for the subject or direct object need to be focus-marked, while the answers can be focused or neutral.