Born to a samurai family in the Satsuma domain (present day Kagoshima prefecture), Kataoka entered the 3rd class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in 1871, and served as a midshipman on the corvette Tsukuba.

He became fluent in German, French and English during his 18 months abroad and graduated with the top honors in his class.

He later trained with future Admiral Yamamoto Gonnohyōe on board the German ships Vineta and Leipzig from 1877-1878.

Kataoka also served as an instructor for two years at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy before returning to Germany in 1889 for advanced studies.

In 1907, Kataoka was elevated to the title of danshaku (baron) under the kazoku peerage system, and was promoted to full admiral and made commander-in-chief of the 1st Fleet in 1910, before being placed on the reserve list the following year.