[10] Java has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious belief, including animism, spirit cults, and cosmology.

Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms are: Mataram, famous for the construction of the majestic Prambanan temple, followed by Kediri and Singhasari.

[citation needed] Hinduism and Buddhism penetrated deeply into all aspects of society, blending with the indigenous tradition and culture.

At the courts, Brahmanas clerics and pudjangga (sacred literati) legitimized rulers and linked Hindu cosmology to their political needs.

[13] Clifford Geertz described this as abangan and priyayi; "the lower class and elite varieties of Javanese syncretism".

Nowadays there are Christian communities, mostly Reformed in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly Roman Catholic.

The Theosophical Society "played a role in the growth" of Kejawèn in the early and mid-twentieth century, and several kebatinan groups were founded by Theosophists.

[13] Ernest Gellner has developed an influential model of Muslim society, in which this dichotomy is central:[13] He sees a dialectical relationship between the two, with periods of scripturalist dominance followed by relapses into emotional, mystical, magical folk Islam.

Modernity — especially urbanisation and mass literacy — unsettles the balance between the two, by eroding the social bases of folk Islam.

[13]Bruinessen finds this too limited, and distinguishes three overlapping spheres:[13] Javanese syncretistic religiousness has a strong popular base, outnumbering the santri and the support for Islamic political parties.

The follower must control their passions, eschewing earthly riches and comforts, so that they may one day reach enlightened harmony and union with the spirit of the universe.

Although kebatinan is a predominantly Javanese tradition, it has also attracted practitioners from other ethnic and religious groups, such as Chinese and Buddhists,[31] and foreigners from Australia and Europe.

This loosely organized current of thought and practice was legitimized in the 1945 constitution,[citation needed] but failed to attain official recognition as a religion.

[citation needed] There are several tapa: Fasting is a common practice employed by Javanese spiritualists in order to attain discipline of mind and body to get rid of material and emotional desires: Kebatinan often implies animistic worship, because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits.

These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artifacts, and grave sites of important wali (Muslim saints).

Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a dukun or healer is sought.

[citation needed] Many of the texts are deliberately elliptical so that those who do not work with either initiates or teachers are unable to ascertain or understand the esoteric doctrines and practices.

[citation needed] But according to Bruinessen, the writing down of kebatinan teachings was a novelty which appeared with the institutionalisation of the kebatinan-movements in the beginning of the 20th century.

[citation needed] After the Suharto-era (1967-1998), the kebatinan-movements lost political support,[26] and have become less dynamic, their adherents avoiding public engagement.

The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the latihan kejiwaan, which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force".

[49] Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words.

[50] The name Subud is said to be formed from the Sanskrit words susila ("the good character of man"[48]), bodhi ("the force of the inner self"[48]) and dharma ("trust in God"[48]).

[51] In those early days, the younger members were taught kanoman, occult practices including invulnerability for knives and guns.

[53] Its doctrine was revealed in 1932 to Sunarto Mertowarjoyo, and written down in the Setat Sasangka Djati by R.T. Harjoparakowo and R. Trihardono Sumodiharjo Pangastu.

[53] According to Sapta Dharma teachings, suji (meditation) is necessary to pierce through different layers of obstacles to reach Semar, the guardian spirit of Java.