The emergence of the Bhakti movement and the development of the modern Malayalam language and the influence of figures like Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan led to the breaking of Brahmin dominance over literature and knowledge.
[citation needed] The arrival of European powers, including the Portuguese, Dutch, and English, played a significant role as catalysts for these changes.
Unlike the four-fold varna division seen in other parts of India, Kerala's social hierarchy was based on caste.
[4] The political landscape of Kerala underwent significant changes with the establishment of centralized monarchies in Travancore and Cochin, leading to the decline of the feudal order.
Prominent reformist leaders such as Narayana Guru and Ayyankali hailed from castes that were deemed lower in the social hierarchy of 19th century Kerala.