By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was characterized by an acceptance of Darwinian evolution, use of modern biblical criticism, and participation in the Social Gospel movement.
[1] Liberal Protestantism developed in the 19th century out of a perceived need to adapt Christianity to a modern intellectual context.
With the acceptance of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, some traditional Christian beliefs, such as parts of the Genesis creation narrative, became difficult to defend.
"[8] Beginning in Germany, liberal theology was influenced by several strands of thought, including the Enlightenment's high view of human reason and Pietism's emphasis on religious experience and interdenominational tolerance.
Traditional Protestants understood the Bible to be uniquely authoritative (sola scriptura); all doctrine, teaching and the church itself derive authority from it.
[9] The use of these methods of biblical interpretation led liberals to conclude that "none of the New Testament writings can be said to be apostolic in the sense in which it has been traditionally held to be so".
For example, the traditional doctrine of original sin was rejected for being derived from Augustine of Hippo, whose views on the New Testament were believed to have been distorted by his involvement with Manichaeism.
[21] The debate over whether a belief in miracles was mere superstition or essential to accepting the divinity of Christ constituted a crisis within the 19th-century church, for which theological compromises were sought.
[22][pages needed] Some liberals prefer to read Jesus' miracles as metaphorical narratives for understanding the power of God.
[26] When studied as history without regard to miraculous events, Ritschl believed the New Testament affirmed Jesus' divine mission.
[27] The Christian life for Ritschl was devoted to ethical activity and development, so he understood doctrines to be value judgments rather than assertions of facts.
[26] Influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, Ritschl viewed "religion as the triumph of the spirit (or moral agent) over humanity's natural origins and environment.
Modernist theologians approved of radical biblical criticism and were willing to question traditional Christian doctrines, especially Christology.
[29] Sean O'Riordan refers to a liberal attitude as one of four schools of thought adopted among the bishops and other theologians at the Second Vatican Council: the liberal attitude, reflective of the mid-century Nouvelle théologie movement, was "modern-minded, enterprising, [and] ready for new ventures of faith", opting for "newness" in many aspects of the pastoral life of the Church "from top to bottom".
[31] Papal condemnation of modernism and Americanism slowed the development of a liberal Catholic tradition in the United States.
The Hicksites were led by Quaker minister Elias Hicks, who put a strong focus on listening to one's inward light instead of a primary appeal to doctrine or creeds.