Section Lupinnelus consisted of one species (L. uncialis), with axillary and solitary flowers, scarcely reflexed banner, and also with two ovules in the ovary.

While Watson's work was predominantly based on study of North American species, the later research of Ascherson and Graebner (1907) extended his principle of classification to cover all lupins from the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, also using number of ovules (seedbuds) in the ovary (and thus of seeds in the pod) as the criterion for this division.

It comprises the following species:[8][9][10] In its current circumscription,[7] subgenus Lupinus includes 12 species from the Mediterranean region and Africa with at least four ovules or seedbuds in the ovary: The status of the following binomials is unresolved:[10] The following hybrids have been described:[10] While some sources believe the origin of the name to be in doubt[citation needed], the Collins Dictionary definition asserts that the word is 14th century in origin, from the Latin lupīnus "wolfish" from lupus "wolf"[41] as it was believed that the plant ravenously exhausted the soil.

[42] But a more likely explanation is that lupinus meant that the plants were as dangerous to livestock as wolves, because the alkaloid poisons of lupines can sicken or kill grazing animals, especially sheep.

Farmers have known since ancient Rome[43] that lupines improve soil by adding nitrogen and loosening compacted earth with their strong root systems, so the Collins explanation is improbable.

[citation needed] Lupins have been planted in some parts of Australia with a considerably cooler climate, particularly in rural Victoria and New South Wales.

[52] Like other legumes, lupines can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere[53] into ammonia via a rhizobium–root nodule symbiosis, fertilizing the soil for other plants.

[5] In the early 20th century, German scientists attempted to cultivate a sweet variety of lupin lacking the bitter taste, making it more suitable for both human and animal consumption.

[55] While originally cultivated as a green manure or forage, lupins are increasingly grown for their seeds, which can be used as an alternative to soybeans.

Sweet (low alkaloid) lupins are highly regarded as a stock feed, particularly for ruminants, but also for pigs and poultry and more recently as an ingredient in aqua-feeds.

Lupin seeds are considered "superior" to soybeans in certain applications and evidence is increasing for their potential health benefits.

[59] Lupin plants can be colonized by the fungus Diaporthe toxica[60] which can cause a mycotoxicosis known as lupinosis when ingested by grazing animals.

The Andean lupin or tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) was a widespread food in the Incan Empire; but they have never been accorded the same status as soybeans, dry peas and other pulse crops.

The pearl lupin of the Andean highlands of South America, L. mutabilis, known locally as tarwi or chocho, was extensively cultivated, but no conscious genetic improvement other than to select for larger and water-permeable seeds seems to have been made.

Users soaked the seed in running water to remove most of the bitter alkaloids and then cooked or toasted the seeds to make them edible,[63][full citation needed] or else boiled and dried them to make kirku,[62] reported as a pre-Columbian practice in Las Relaciones geográficas de Indias.

[64] Spanish domination led to a change in the eating habits of the indigenous peoples, and only recently[65] (late 20th century onward) has interest in using lupins as a food been renewed.

The European white lupin (L. albus) beans are commonly sold in a salty solution in jars (like olives and pickles) and can be eaten with or without the skin.

In Egypt, the lupin is known in Arabic as ترمس termes, and is a popular street snack after being treated with several soakings of water, and then brined.

In Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Syria the salty and chilled lupini beans are called turmus (in Arabic: تُرمُس, Hebrew: תורמוס) and are served as part of an apéritif or a snack.

[69] Consumed throughout the Mediterranean region and the Andean mountains, lupins were eaten by the early Egyptian and pre-Incan people and were known to Roman agriculturalists for their ability to improve the fertility of soils.