Parenting styles
[4] Early researchers studied parenting along a range of dimensions, including levels of responsiveness, democracy, emotional involvement, control, acceptance, dominance, and restrictiveness.
[10] They have also argued that additional developmental skills result from positive parenting styles, including maintaining a close relationship with others, being self-reliant, and being independent.
"[1] Others such as Lamborn and Dornbusch Darling and Steinberg assisted in the research focusing on impacts of parenting practices on adolescence achievement.
Piaget was a pioneer in the field of child development and psychology and continues to influence parents, educators and other theorists with a significant effect on science.
[22] Rudolf Dreikurs believed that pre-adolescent children's misbehavior was caused by their unfulfilled wish to be a member of a social group.
A very poor environment is needed to interfere with development... [just] do not raise your child in a closet, starve them, or hit them on the head with a frying pan".
[27] Similarly, the journalist Tim Gill has expressed concern about excessive risk aversion by parents and those responsible for children in his book No Fear.
[28] This aversion limits the opportunities for children to develop sufficient adult skills, particularly in dealing with risk, but also in performing adventurous and imaginative activities.
[35] Another study shows that warm adoptive parenting at 27 months predicted lower levels of child externalizing problems at ages 6 and 7.
In her research, she found what she considered to be the four basic elements that could help shape successful parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs.
Chandler, Heffer, and Turner argue that parenting styles are associated with adolescent psychological and behavioral problems and may affect academic performance.
In addition, advocates of the authoritarian style often believe that the shock of aggression from someone from the outside world will affect children less because they are accustomed to both acute and chronic stress imposed by parents.
Indulgent parenting, also called permissive, non-directive, lenient, libertarian,[58] or (by supporters) anti-authoritarian,[59] is characterized as having few behavioral expectations for the child.
[69] Most studies, mainly in English-speaking countries, show that children of authoritative parents have the best outcomes in different domains (behavioral, psychological and social adjustment…).
Dr. Wendy Grolnick has critiqued Baumrind's use of the term "firm control" in her description of authoritative parenting and argued that there should be clear differentiation between coercive power assertion (which is associated with negative effects on children) and the more positive roles of structure and high expectations.
However, when the stress is gone and they know they are safe due to that relationship the infant or child can then engage in activities to strengthen how they explore and view the world around them.
[81] If an adolescent continues to have a secure attachment with their caregiver, they are more likely to talk to their guardian about their problems and concerns, have stronger interpersonal relationships with friends and significant others, and also have higher self-esteem.
[81] Parents continue to maintain a secure attachment through adolescence by expressing understanding, good communication skills, and allowing their children to safely start doing things independently.
Typically narcissistic parents are exclusively and possessively close to their children and may be especially envious of, and threatened by, their child's growing independence.
A child's self-image, social skills, and academic performance will improve, impacting how they will grow up to be mature, happy, well-balanced adults.
[96] It has been found that when families have low levels of nurturant-involved parenting the youth are more likely to get involved with illegal substances and underage drinking.
[115] Some historians, such as Stephanie Coontz, suggest that alloparenting as a parenting style helps children to understand love and trust through a widened perspective due to increased bonds formed between child and adult.
[119] With the help of sensitivity, respect, and understanding as well as the establishment of sound limits, gentle parenting aims to raise children who are self-assured, autonomous, and content.
Research findings indicate that ADHD children are more negative and are often outspoken and dictatorial and show fewer inclinations to fixing issues.
While many instances of such manipulation occur in shared custody situations that have resulted from separation or divorce, it can also take place in intact families, where it is known as triangulation.
[128] For instance, in sub-Saharan Africa children are likely to have more than one main caregiver, to acquire language in a bilingual environment, and to play in mixed aged peer groups.
[130] In addition, international studies have found Chinese parents to be more concerned with impulse control, which may explain the greater use of authoritarian style as compared to U.S.
[139] Resolving these issues is important in assessing the transferability of parenting interventions across cultures and from high to low income countries in order to improve child development and health outcomes.
[52] Research shows that children who view their parents as authoritative generally tend to be happier and functioning at a higher level in a variety of areas.
[150] As the years go on and adolescents grow and mature, their perception of differential parenting within their household becomes prominent and plays a role in forming one's own identity.
