Peer group
Cliques typically have 2–12 members and tend to be formed by age, gender, race, and social class.
[6] Being part of a clique can be advantageous since it may provide a sense of autonomy, a secure social environment, and overall well-being.
However, currently more than 23 percent of children globally lack enough connections with their age group, and their cognitive, emotional and social development are delayed than other kids.
[11] Developmental psychologists, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and social learning theorists have all argued that peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction.
In addition Piaget identified with aspects of development, occurring from middle childhood onwards, for which peer groups are essential.
[16] Erikson went on to describe how peer pressure is a key event during the adolescences stage of psychosocial development.
In his Latency stage, which includes children from 6–12 years old and this is when the adolescents begin to develop relationships among their peers.
[18] Sullivan described friendships as providing the following functions: (a) offering consensual validation, (b) bolstering feelings of self-worth, (c) providing affection and a context for intimate disclosure, (d) promoting interpersonal sensitivity, and (e) setting the foundation for romantic and parental relationships.
[19] In The Nurture Assumption and No Two Alike, psychologist Judith Rich Harris suggests that an individual's peer group significantly influences their intellectual and personal development.
Several longitudinal studies support the conjecture that peer groups significantly affect scholastic achievement,[20][21][22] particularly when adult involvement is low.
[23] Relatively few studies have examined the effect peer groups have on tests of cognitive ability.
Members inside peer groups also learn to develop relationships with others in the social system.
[29] While boys and girls differ greatly, there is not a one-to-one link between sex and gender roles with males always being masculine and females always being feminine.
Major changes include: decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feelings of self-sufficiency, and connecting with a much larger social network.
[32][33][34] Adolescents are expanding their perspective beyond the family and learning how to negotiate relationships with others in different parts of the social system.
[25] Peer groups also influence individual members' attitudes and behaviours on many cultural and social issues, such as: drug use, violence, and academic achievement.
Erik Erikson emphasized the importance of identity formation, and he illustrated the steps one takes in developing his or her sense of self.
[44] Peer interactions have a significant impact on adolescents, developing empathy, conflict resolution, and interpersonal skills, these relationships also play a crucial role in shaping body image and satisfaction.
Learning how peer pressure impacts individuals is a step to minimizing the negative effects it leads to.
Therefore, if one does not have successful peer relationships it may lead to developmental delays and poor academic achievement—perhaps even in-completion of a high school degree.
Children with poor peer relationships may also experience job related and marital problems later in life.
Adolescents typically replace family with peers regarding social and leisure activities, and many problematic behaviors occur in the context of these groups.
An adolescent's peer group plays a role in shaping him or her into an adult, and the lack of positive behavior can lead to consequences in the future.
[52][53] Individuals with disabilities encounter challenges in peer relationships, including deficits in social skills such as emotion detection, conflict resolution, and conceptual understanding.
The next section of the questionnaire was an intergroup comparison task in which participants compared their peer group to an outgroup.
Cross racial peers groups can be very beneficial, lowering prejudice and increasing prosocial behaviors.
[59][60][61] Having a cross racial friend has also been shown to give youth a higher status and feel more socially satisfied.
[63] An effective approach to promoting peer relationships among adolescents with disabilities may require a comprehensive strategy that addresses the individual and social aspects of support, fostering understanding.
This might involve imparting information and resources on disabilities to both peers and schools, organizing meaningful social activities with friends, and providing emotional support.
