Perspective-taking
[1] A vast amount of scientific literature suggests that perspective-taking is crucial to human development[2] and that it may lead to a variety of beneficial outcomes.
[14] Perceptual perspective-taking is the ability to understand how another person experiences things through their senses (i.e. visually or auditorily).
[6] Conceptual perspective-taking is the ability to comprehend and take on the viewpoint of another person's psychological experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings, and attitudes).
There are not always clear lines of distinction between empathy and perspective-taking; the two concepts are often studied in conjunction with one another and viewed as related and similar.
Some research distinguishes the two concepts and points out their differences,[1] while other literature theorizes that perspective-taking is one component of empathy.
[12][18] Studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking, and have drawn different conclusions.
In 1956, Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder conducted a study to assess the visual perspective-taking abilities of young children.
[27] For example, in comparing six-year-olds, eight-year-olds, ten-year-olds, and adults (averaging 19 years old) researchers found that as people's age increases, visual perspective-taking tasks can be done with more accuracy and speed.
This theory suggests that there are five developmental stages involved in perspective-taking ranging from ages three to six (characterized by egocentrism or an inability to think of things from another's point of view) to teenagers and adults (who can understand another person's point of view and whose understanding is informed by recognizing another person's environment and culture).
[31] Other studies assess that children can begin to take on the viewpoint of another person, considering their feelings, thoughts, and attitudes, as four-year-olds.
[33][34] With respect to visual perspective-taking in adults, Tversky and Hard (2009) have shown that observers tend to use the point of view of another person when describing the spatial relations of objects.
[10] Studies suggest these areas of the brain are involved in decision-making[38] visual imagery,[39] and attention[40] respectively[clarification needed].
Studies have been conducted by administering a positron emission tomography (PET) scan and asking participants to engage in perspective-taking tasks.
[41] Studies suggest that regions that are activated during cognitive perspective-taking include the right parietal lobe and the posterior cingulate cortex among others.
The perspective-taking subscale asks participants to report how likely they are to engage in trying to see things from another person's point of view.
One study, which assessed cross-cultural data in 63 countries using the IRI, concluded that perspective-taking and empathic concern was associated with volunteerism and agreeableness as well as self-esteem and life satisfaction.
[46] Research also finds that in negotiations, taking on the perspective of another person and empathizing with them may have differential outcomes[clarification needed].
One study found that people who engaged in perspective-taking were more effective in making a deal with another person and in finding innovative agreements that satisfied both parties, as compared to those who empathized with someone else.
[1] Research reveals that perspective-taking is associated with sympathy toward others and prosocial behavior in children as young as 18 months old.
[49] One study suggests that perspective-taking leads to more creative and innovative ideas particularly in participants who are internally driven to complete a task.
[4] Many studies find potential benefits of perspective-taking on the perceptions of outgroup members[clarification needed].
