Poultry litter
In many areas of the United States, shavings from pine or other soft woods have historically been the bedding of choice for poultry production.
[1] Growers consider a number of factors when determining which material to use as bedding in their facilities, with cost and availability being a major consideration.
Large accumulations of litter stored unused for long periods of time are not ecologically acceptable even on a small scale, and would be non-sustainable from an industrial perspective.
Some materials may meet industry goals once under the birds but if it is difficult to obtain, it will not find favor as a poultry litter.
The more common issue, however, is having localized areas of caking near leaky watering cups, nipples, troughs or roofs.
If litter is not kept at an acceptable moisture level, very high bacterial loads and unsanitary growing conditions may result producing odors (including ammonia), insect problems (particularly flies), soiled feathers, footpad lesions and breast bruises or blisters.
This can affect the health and mortality rate of the flock, and could result in quality issues when birds reared under such poor conditions reach the processing plant.
Litter that is managed correctly with the moisture content kept within the acceptable range can be reused if no disease or other production problems occur.
The caked portion of the litter is very high in moisture and nitrogen and should be removed from the house to reduce ammonia generation and provide optimal air quality for chicks during the brooding period.
[3] High ammonia levels in poultry houses can result in poor bird performance and health and a loss of profits to the grower and integrator.
Uric acid and organic nitrogen (N) in the bird excreta and spilled feed are converted to ammonium (NH4+) by the microbes in the litter.
Because chicks are more susceptible to the negative effects of ammonia, placing broods in houses with high levels of builtup litter is particularly harmful.
[4] There are several types of litter amendments available to manage ammonia the most common being acidifiers, and various microbial and enzymatic treatments.
This type of amendment creates acidic conditions (pH less than 7) in the litter, resulting in more of the ammoniacal nitrogen being temporarily retained as ammonium rather than ammonia.
The combination of using litter amendments and poultry house ventilation provides a healthy and comfortable rearing environment.
Controlling volatilized ammonia in poultry and livestock rearing environments is critical to maintaining a high level of animal health, well-being and efficient live performance.
A study in Finland found that peat, which is high in humic acid, when used as poultry litter it was quite effective in controlling ammonia.
This is an incomplete composting process, and can eliminate harmful pathogens such as E. coli and Salmonella providing that the internal stack temperature reaches 140 to 160 °F (60 to 71 °C).
The FDA decided at this point that a litter ban was unnecessary in part based on comments by the North American Rendering Industry.
There are currently several electrical generating plants in the UK, and recently in the US, that are utilizing poultry and turkey litter as their primary fuel.
The first three in the world were developed by Fibrowatt Ltd in the UK, founded by Simon Fraser, who was appointed an OBE for his contribution to renewable energy.
[10] Some companies[11] are also developing gasification technologies to utilize poultry litter as a fuel for electrical and heating applications, along with producing valuable by-products including activated carbons and fertilizers.
