The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China developed a complicated peerage system for royal and noble ranks.
Occasionally, a peer could be granted the privilege of shixi wangti (世襲罔替; shìxí wǎngtì; "perpetual heritability"), which allowed the title to be passed down without downgrading.
Imperial princes, upon reaching adulthood at the age of 20, had to pass tests in horse-riding, archery and the Manchu language before they were eligible for titles.
All government personnel, from the highest chancellors to the lowest clerk, held an official rank ex officio, which determined their salary, uniform, privileges and order of precedence.
The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty enfeoffed cadet branch princes and other nobles in different regions of China.
Since noble titles were primarily awarded for military service, the titular names predominantly described martial virtues, e.g., zhongyong gong (忠勇公; zhōngyǒng gōng; "loyal and brave duke").
However, a particularly common titular name was cheng'en gong (承恩公; chéng'ēn gōng; "duke who receives grace"), which was frequently granted to the Empress's family members.
At the top of the imperial hierarchy, the highest six ranks enjoyed the "Eight Privileges" (八分; bafen; jakūn ubu).
These privileges were: Peacock feathers, however, were prohibited for princes above the rank of beizi and direct imperial clansmen.
Regardless of title and rank, an imperial prince was addressed as "A-ge" (ᠠᡤᡝ; age; 阿哥; À-gē), which means "lord" or "commander" in Manchu.
An efu retained his title and privileges as long as the princess remained his primary spouse – even after her death.
However, if an efu remarried or promoted a consort to be his primary spouse, he lost all rights obtained from his marriage to the princess.
If the prince was born in a non-iron cap cadet line, his future title depended on the position of his consort.
Princess consort wore jifu with roundels of dragons matching patterns on the surcoat of her husband and tiara with phoenixes.
Mingfu (命妇; mìngfù; "noblewoman") was granted to wives of officials, non-imperial aristocrats and collateral clanswomen.
Mingfus holding rank equivalent to wives of imperial generals conducted court ceremonies, ex.
promotions of imperial consort, weddings of princes and princesses (if they married into Manchu or Han family) and rites, while lower rank ladies attended to them.
However， Differently to imperial clanswomen, mingfus wore crowns with three bejeweled plaques and finial consisting of one coral, silk bandeaus with embroidered golden dragons chasing after a flaming pearl and blue-grounded chaofu on solemn ceremonies.
Lower-ranking ladies could not wear surcoats with roundels of flowers and auspicious symbols unlike imperial duchesses and clanswomen.
Collateral clanswomen could wear surcoats with rampant four-clawed dragons above the magnificent sea-waves pattern (lishui) and white caishui (pointed kerchief fastened to the robe like a pendant).
Wives of officials wore sleeveless vest matching Mandarin square of her husband and Ming Dynasty style tiaras, as depicted on ancestral portraits.
These were sometimes granted as special privileges, but also often as a practical means of conferring official rank promotion without giving specific responsibilities.
Under the tusi system, the Qing Empire also recognised various local tribal chieftainships of ethnic minority tribes.