The Republic of Haiti (French: République d’Haïti, Haitian Creole: Repiblik d Ayiti) was reestablished by Fabre Geffrard following the fall of Faustin I and his empire.

The presidency of Lysius Salomon (1879–1888) brought monetary reform and a cultural renaissance, yet his attempts to extend his rule sparked opposition, leading to his resignation; Haiti descended into civil war.

Florvil Hyppolite (1889–1896) eventually reunified the nation, ushering in a rare period of political stability that was maintained by his successor Tirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902).

By the 20th-century however, Haiti was again engulfed in political turmoil, with the rise of a movement named Firminism, advocating for economic reform and civilian governance, clashing with traditional military elites.

During this period, the U.S. controlled Haiti’s finances, established a professional military force, and implemented infrastructure projects, but also suppressed dissent and excluded Haitians from governance.

The post-occupation era saw the rise of authoritarian leaders like Sténio Vincent and Élie Lescot, who marginalized opposition and cooperated with Rafael Trujillo, the dictator of the Dominican Republic.

His heavy-handed rule sparked widespread discontent, which was exploited by Generals Jean-Nicolas Nissage Saget and Michel Domingue to lead a rebellion.

[7] In 1874, Saget peacefully transferred power to National-aligned Michel Domingue, marking one of the few times a Haitian head of state served his prescribed term and then retired.

[13] The nation then descended into civil war; stability was eventually restored under Florvil Hyppolite, who reunified Haiti and ushered in a rare period of peace.

Firmin reorganized the banks, taxation, and regularized debt payments to France, stabilizing Haiti's reputation as a reliable debtor nation.

[15] Though initially backed by the Nationals, Hyppolite had declared himself a Liberal by the time he reached the presidency, making the divisions increasingly blurry and ultimately irrelevant.

Haitian intellectuals, led by Louis-Joseph Janvier and Anténor Firmin, engaged in a war of letters against a tide of racism and Social Darwinism that emerged during this period.

[18] Advocating for economic reform, the reduction of military influence in politics, the broader inclusion of civilian participation in governance, and a third-way that transcended the traditional Liberal and National divide,[18] Firminism quickly gained momentum.

Amid mounting discontent over famines and natural disasters, General Antoine Simon launched a rebellion against Alexis, eventually driving him to exile later that year.

However, Firmin himself delayed the journey, waiting for a larger vessel to accommodate his followers and their families - a hesitation that cost him the chance to claim power.

One from 1910 accused Simon of “selling the country whole to the Americans” and forewarning that under U.S. domination, “independent Haitians would return to being slaves.”[22] In 1911, General Cincinnatus Leconte capitalized on border tensions with the Dominican Republic to lead a rebellion and launch his own bid for power, managing to rally some of Firmin's supporters towards his cause.

In retaliation, Simon directed a full-scale military assault on Ouanaminthe, the rebellious eastern border town where Leconte had gathered his forces.

[23] While Simon and his ministers focused on quelling the rebellion, generals remaining in Port-au-Prince seized the opportunity to exact revenge on their political enemies and settle scores, with supporters of Firmin being summarily executed on charges of conspiracy.

Firmin arrived a day later on August 7 in Cap-Haïtien aboard a French steamer, the Caravelle, but his delayed landing weakened his negotiating position.

In a personal farewell letter, Firmin expressed deep disappointment, lamenting that Haiti had rejected his vision of national unity and progress.

[25] The revolutionary armies were formed by cacos, peasant brigands from the mountains of the north, along the porous Dominican border, who were enlisted by rival political factions with promises of money to be paid after a successful revolution and an opportunity to plunder.

The United States was particularly apprehensive about the role of the German community in Haiti (approximately 200 in 1910), who wielded a disproportionate amount of economic power.

Germans controlled about 80% of the country's international commerce; they also owned and operated utilities in Cap Haïtien and Port-au-Prince, the main wharf and a tramway in the capital, and a railroad serving the Plaine de Cul-du-Sac.

[26] In February 1915, Vilbrun Guillaume Sam formed a dictatorship, but in July, facing a new revolt, whom he massacred 167 political opponents, and was lynched by a mob in Port-au-Prince.

By August 1932, with the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as US President, American troops withdrew and authority was formally transferred to local police and army officials.

In January 1946, after Lescot jailed editors of a Marxist newspaper, protests broke out among government workers, teachers, and business owners.

After refusing to step down after his term ended, a general strike shut down Port-au-Prince's economy, and Magloire fled, leaving the government in a state of chaos.