Satipatthana
While these teachings are found in all Buddhist traditions, modern Theravada Buddhism and the Vipassana Movement are known especially for promoting the practice of satipaṭṭhāna as developing mindfulness to gain insight into impermanence, thereby reaching a first state of liberation.
In contrast, the term upaṭṭhāna (presence or establishment) can in fact be found throughout the nikayas and is readily visible in the Sanskrit equivalents of the compound Pāli phrase satipaṭṭhāna (Skt., smṛtyupasthāna or smṛti-upasthāna).
[53][54][55] In the later commentarial tradition, which has survived in present-day Theravāda, dhyāna is equated with "concentration," a state of one-pointed absorption in which there is a diminished awareness of the surroundings.
Since the 1980s, scholars and practitioners have started to question this equation, arguing for a more comprehensive and integrated understanding and approach, based on the oldest descriptions of dhyāna in the suttas.
[60] Anālayo also writes that satipaṭṭhāna is not purely a concentration (samādhi) exercise, noting that sati "represents an enhancement of the recollective function," in which the breadth of attention is expanded.
"[63] In the early Buddhist texts, mindfulness is explained as being established in four main ways: Rupert Gethin translates (from the Pali) the basic exposition of these four practices (which he calls the "basic formula") that is shared by numerous early Buddhist sources as follows: Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu [i] with regard to the body dwells watching body; he is ardent, he comprehends clearly, is possessed of mindfulness and overcomes both desire for and discontent with the world.
According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the samskharas are tranquilized:[65] The various early sources show considerable variation in the practices included under mindfulness of the body.
[68] The practice of mindfulness of anatomical parts is described in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta as follows: "one examines this same body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair, enclosed by skin and full of many kinds of impurity."
Following this instruction is a list of various body parts, including hair, skin, teeth, numerous organs as well as different kinds of bodily liquids.
"[75] Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that this practice, far from creating a negative self-image, allows us to develop a healthy understanding of the reality that all bodies are equal (and thus none is superior or inferior in terms of beauty, since such a concept is ultimate relative to one's frame of reference).
[76] The practice of mindfulness of the elements or properties mainly focuses on four physical attributes (mahābhūta): earth (solids), water (liquids), air (gases moving in and outside the body, as well as breathing) and fire (warmth/temperature).
[85] The Kāyagatāsati-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel also list various others benefits from practicing mindfulness of the body, including how it helps to give rise to mental balance and detachment and allows one to endure many physical discomforts.
[97] In all early sources, the contemplation of the mind or cognition (citta) begins with noticing the presence or absence of the three unwholesome roots (lust, anger, and delusion).
[104] Anālayo further notes that this element of contemplation of the mind shows that in early Buddhism "enquiring if one has reached some degree of attainment is considered an integral part of knowing the nature of one's own mental condition.
Only two sets of dhammas ("principles" or "mental categories") are shared by all early sources: the five hindrances and the seven factors of awakening, and Anālayo considers these two as integral elements of the fourth satipaṭṭhāna.
"[112] Sujato argues that dhammā here refers to a "distinctive and more profound aspect of meditation: the understanding of the causal principles underlying the development of samādhi.
"[116] According to U Sīlānanda, a proponent of the New Burmese method, the five hindrances are those mental states that hinder or block the mind's progress to deeper concentration and liberation.
[148] Thanissaro translates anupassanā as "remaining focused" and “keeping track,” which "denotes the element of concentration in the practice, as one tries to stay with one particular theme in the midst of the welter of experience.
[159] Anālayo also notes that balancing internal and external contemplation is important because it can prevent a one sided awareness focused on one domain (self-centredness or lack of introspection respectively).
This is listed in the Pali version in what Sujato calls the "auxiliary formula" which states that one contemplates (anupassī) each satipaṭṭhāna with the following four qualities: ardency or diligence (ātāpī), clear comprehension (sampajāna), mindfulness (sati), and "free from desires and discontent (vineyya abhijjhādomanassa)" (with some variation across the different sources).
[163] The term ātāpī is associated with the concept of tapas (ascetic power) and it is said to be related to heroic strength, effort or energy (viriya) in the Nettipakarana.
[164] Thanissaro Bhikkhu defines it as "the factor of effort or exertion...which contains an element of discernment in its ability to distinguish skillful from unskillful mental qualities.
"[165] The Ekottarika-āgama version states that one practices satipaṭṭhāna while "removing evil thoughts and being free from worry and sorrow, one experiences joy in oneself.
[173] The Theravada Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, as well as the Ekottarika-āgama version preserved in Chinese contain instructions to contemplate the arising and disappearance of the meditation subject (i.e. impermanence, anicca).
Samatha was taught before the Buddha (so is not really Buddhist), it is dangerous (because one can easily get attached to the bliss), and it is unnecessary (because vipassanā alone can develop the access samādhi necessary to suppress the hindrances).
[180] Anālayo writes that certain modern Theravada meditation teachers "emphasize the “dry insight” approach, dispensing with the formal development of mental calm.
He cites U Pandita who writes that satipaṭṭhāna practice means to “attack the object without hesitation ... with violence, speed or great force ... with excessive haste or hurry.”[182] Analayo thinks this mistaken understanding of mindfulness "arose because of a misreading or misinterpretation of a particular term".
[189] The Tibetan canon also contains a True Dharma Application of Mindfulness Sutra (Tohoku Catalogue # 287, dam chos dran pa nyer bzhag, saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasutra).
[194] It is a complex and heterogeneous Mulasarvastivada text with various topics, such as long descriptions of the various realms in Buddhist cosmology, discussions of karma theory, meditation and ethics.
(2) Transforming “conceptual constructions whose occurrence one feels/senses (or is aware of)” (byung tshor gyi rtog pa) into gnosis characterized by great bliss (bde ba chen po’i ye shes) is called vedanāsmṛtyupasthāna.
