Self-expansion model
The self-expansion model proposes that individuals seek to expand their sense of self by acquiring resources, broadening their perspectives, and increase competency to ultimately optimize their ability to thrive in their environment.
The motivational principle refers to an individual's inherent desire to improve their self-efficacy and adapt, survive, and reproduce in their environment.
[11] Within the self-expansion model, potential efficacy is used instead, as it only refers to obtaining resources that will make goal attainment possible.
[9] The self-expansion model was originally established to explore the question, "Why do people develop and maintain relationships?"
[13] It contains a total of 14 items to measure the degree of increase in the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an individual has experienced from his or her partners.
Several studies have showed that this measurement tool is effective in getting accurate depictions of the amount of closeness and the inclusion of the other in the self.
The slow reaction times were consistent with the inclusion of the ingroup in the self claim as it suggested that the individual had included group characteristics in the self.
The contact hypothesis (by Gordon Allport) is one area of psychology that focuses on positive aspects of intergroup relations.
[30][31] The hypothesis suggests that when there is cooperation, equal status, common goals and authority support then contact between members of different groups can result in reduced negative attitudes.
[33] The pairs of women met over an extended period of time completing different activities together, which led to a measurable close friendship.
These differences allow for a greater likelihood to increase resources, identities and perspectives, which is consistent with the self-expansion motive.
An excessive amount of self-expansion without proper self-integration can be quite stressful (e.g. moving to a new city, or starting a new job).
[41] Results of these research studies has shown that self-expansion can (and does) occur at the individual level (e.g. through hobbies and spiritual experiences) and in workplace settings.
[43][3] While the perceived similarity in interests, background, and values is found to be an important factor affecting attraction, dissimilarity in partners is an avenue for expansion due to the provision of novel resources, opinions, and identification.
[44][45] A study found that providing information about a high likelihood of developing a relationship with the target person diminished and somewhat reversed the similarity-attraction effect for men in particular.
[47] For established couples, research shows they can experience different levels of motivation for self-expansion throughout their relationship, and these findings have been replicated in cross-cultural samples.
A type of confirmation bias emerges such that those that expect future self-expansion through their relationships are more likely to engage in self-expanding activities.
In one study, dating college students and married couples attributed boredom in their relationships to low novelty and stimulation.
[44] Consensually non-monogamous individuals that have more than one sexual or romantic partner at the same time have more opportunities for self-expansion, suggesting positive implications for this relationship arrangement.
[44] Transitioning to an open relationship can be a novel and exciting experience for a couple that can increase levels of passion as posited by the research.
There are several non-sexual opportunities as well when multiple partners are involved, such as exploring different interests and learning new perspectives.
[44] Romantic relationships that do not provide sufficient opportunity for individual self-expansion may increase the inclination to perceive and focus on alternative partners.
[44] In one study, participants that reported lower self-expansion in their relationships were more likely to enjoy interacting with a computer program simulation that was shown to be more self-expanding.
[44] In such circumstances, individuals are less likely to employ motivational and perceptual biases that protect against the influence of attractive alternatives.
A mediational analysis demonstrated that attention to alternatives explains the observed relationship between self-expansion and infidelity.
Loss of a relationship that does not promote expansion is found to have positive effects on the individual as it could provide new, previously restricted opportunities for growth.
However, personal or non-relational self-expansion can still occur through novel and challenging individual experiences (e.g. learning a new language) resulting in several intrapersonal benefits.
[3][52] Notable behavioral changes caused by individual self-expansion include smoking cessation, weight loss, and better physical health.
[53] This suggests that growth experienced through non-shared activities can fulfill individual needs but could reduce passion for one's partner.
[44] Relationship satisfaction for ongoing couples is increased when partners are encouraging non-relational self-expanding activities.
