Uthman ibn Affan, the third Rashidun caliph, who ruled from 644 to 656, was assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house in 656.
The protesters-turned-rebels had demanded a new caliph, which Uthman refused; on 17 June 656 (35 AH) protestors set the house on fire, made their way inside, and killed him.
Questions were raised not only regarding his character and policies but also the relationship between Muslims and the state, religious beliefs regarding rebellion and governance, and the qualifications of rulership in Islam.
Continuing the wars of conquest initiated by Abu Bakr, he brought about the almost complete collapse of Sasanian Persia.
[9] In some matters, such as military pay (ata) and administrative offices, Umar gave preference to those with precedence (sabiqa) in Islam and kept the late comers to the movement at bay, which to some extent resulted in social stratification and dissatisfaction among the holders of power and prestige in the old order.
[14][15] Muhammad, and later Abu Bakr and Umar, tried to win the Umayyads over to and incorporate them in the new order by awarding them gifts and important posts.
[14][15][16] Uthman began centralizing the power by reliance on his Umayyad relatives, to the exclusion of other Quraysh, who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors, and the Ansar, Medinese helpers of Muhammad, who had already lost some importance after his death.
[19] Uthman's interference in the provincial affairs, that consisted of his declaration of the crown lands of Iraq as the state assets, and his demand that provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph in Medina, brought about widespread opposition to his rule, especially from Iraq and Egypt, where majority of the conquest armies had settled.
[21][22] At the head of the old settlers of Kufa, who subsequently became known as qurra (Qur'an reciters), Malik ibn al-Harith began opposing Uthman's policies.
Events came to a head when Uthman's governor of Kufa, his relative Sa'id ibn al-As, was expelled from the city by the qurra.
They declared the companion Abu Musa al-Ash'ari – who had earlier been deposed from the governorship of Basra by Uthman and at that time resided in Kufa – their governor.
[23][24] The provincial discontent was coupled with the dissatisfaction of the Ansar and the Quraysh of Medina, including a number of senior companions of Muhammad, who under Uthman had lost their influence and prestige to Umayyads.
[25] Qurayshi clans like Zuhra, Hashim, and Makhzum had withdrawn their support of Uthman, whereas companions Amr ibn al-As, Talha and Muhammad's widow A'isha had been severely criticizing the Caliph, accusing him of nepotism and bid'a (innovation in religion).
Letters were sent to Kufa and Egypt by the wives of Muhammad led by A'isha (they were deeply respected as "mothers of the believers")[a] which urged the provincials to rise up against Uthman.
As Uthman stood in his balcony, Niyar ibn Iyad al-Aslami, a companion of Muhammad, lectured him from outside and demanded his abdication.
[1][2] An alternative version transmitted from an eyewitness, Rayta, reports that Muhammad pulled back after grabbing Uthman's beard and tried to stop the other rebels.
[37] Kinana ibn Bishr al-Tujibi then joined in by piercing under Uthman's ear from behind with arrows and sword blows.