[2] Situation awareness has been recognized as a critical foundation for successful decision-making across a broad range of situations, many of which involve the protection of human life and property, including law enforcement, aviation, air traffic control, ship navigation,[3] health care,[4] emergency response, military command and control operations, transmission system operators, self defense,[5] and offshore oil and nuclear power plant management.
[22] Before being widely adopted by human factors scientists in the 1990s, the term is said to have been used by United States Air Force (USAF) fighter aircrew returning from war in Korea and Vietnam.
Endsley's model shows how SA "provides the primary basis for subsequent decision making and performance in the operation of complex, dynamic systems".
As new inputs enter the system, the individual incorporates them into this mental representation, making changes as necessary in plans and actions in order to achieve the desired goals.
Research has shown that there are a number of factors that make some people better at SA than others including differences in spatial abilities and multi-tasking skills.
In the context of military command and control applications, situational understanding refers to the "product of applying analysis and judgment to the unit's situation awareness to determine the relationships of the factors present and form logical conclusions concerning threats to the force or mission accomplishment, opportunities for mission accomplishment, and gaps in information".
[61] In contrast, experienced decision makers assess and interpret the current situation (Level 1 and 2 SA) and select an appropriate action based on conceptual patterns stored in their long-term memory as "mental models".
[64]In brief, sensemaking is viewed more as "a motivated, continuous effort to understand connections (which can be among people, places, and events) in order to anticipate their trajectories and act effectively",[65] rather than the state of knowledge underlying situation awareness.
Endsley also points out that sensemaking is backward focused, forming reasons for past events, while situation awareness is typically forward looking, projecting what is likely to happen in order to inform effective decision processes.
Prioritizing critical elements, assessing potential outcomes, and considering the immediate and long-term consequences are crucial aspects of effective time-critical decision-making.
Adaptability and the ability to recalibrate strategies in real-time are vital attributes in time-critical scenarios, as unforeseen developments may require rapid adjustments to the initial decision.
Ultimately, successful time-critical decision-making involves a combination of expertise, preparedness, effective communication, and a willingness to adapt, ensuring that the chosen course of action aligns with the urgency of the situation while minimizing the risk of errors.
Objective measures directly assess SA by comparing an individual's perceptions of the situation or environment to some "ground truth" reality.
Specifically, objective measures collect data from the individual on his or her perceptions of the situation and compare them to what is actually happening to score the accuracy of their SA at a given moment in time.
Thus, this type of assessment provides a direct measure of SA and does not require operators or observers to make judgments about situational knowledge on the basis of incomplete information.
To address this limitation, observers can be asked to evaluate the degree to which individuals are carrying out actions and exhibiting behaviors that would be expected to promote the achievement of higher levels of SA.
[81][82] Although evidence exists to support the utility of communication analysis for predicting team SA,[83] time constraints and technological limitations (e.g., cost and availability of speech recording systems and speech-to-text translation software) may make this approach less practical and viable in time-pressured, fast-paced operations.
Comprehension of the situation and projection of future status depend heavily on relevant knowledge, understanding, and experience in similar environments.
[87] Following Endsley's paradigm and with cognitive resource management model[88] with neurofeedback techniques, Spanish Pedagogist María Gabriela López García (2010) implemented and developed a new SA training pattern.
[90] This situation awareness training aims to avoid losing SA and provide pilots cognitive resources to always operate below the maximum workload that they can withstand.
[91] In first aid medical training provided by the American Red Cross, the need to be aware of the situation within the area of influence as one approaches an individual requiring medical assistance is the first aspect for responders to consider[92] Examining the area and being aware of potential hazards, including the hazards which may have caused the injuries being treated, is an effort to ensure that responders do not themselves get injured and require treatment as well.
A loss in situational awareness has led to many transportation accidents, including the 1991 Los Angeles Airport runway collision[94] and the 2015 Philadelphia train derailment.
Situational awareness in the forest context also includes evaluating the environment and the potential safety hazards within a saw crew's area of influence.
Technology and algorithms are then used to apply knowledge and wisdom in order to discern patterns of behavior that point to possible, probable, and real threats.
When it comes to automation, six barriers have been determined to discourage "human trust in autonomous systems, with 'low observability, predictability, directability and auditability' and 'low mutual understanding of common goals' being among the key issues.
[106] A 2018 publication from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory evaluated how varying transparency levels in the SAT affects the operator workload and a human's understanding of when it is necessary to intervene in the agent's decision making.
The stated goal of this research was to determine how modifying levels of SAT affected user performance, situation awareness, and confidence in the agent.
[107] The group of scientists from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory developed transparency visualization concepts in which the agents can communicate their plans, motivations, and projected outcomes through icons.
[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115] For instance, analysis of content posted on online social media like Facebook and Twitter using data mining, machine learning and natural language processing techniques may provide situational information.
There are two training scenarios designed to increase the situational awareness skills of military professionals, and first responders in police and emergency services.