Slavery in ancient Egypt

Discussions of slavery in Pharaonic Egypt are complicated by terminology used by the Egyptians to refer to different classes of servitude over the course of dynastic history.

Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves in ancient Egypt has been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone.

The word translated as "slave" from the Egyptian language does not neatly align with modern terms or traditional labor roles.

Egyptians wanted dominion over their kingdoms and would alter political and social ideas to benefit their economic state.

The existence of slavery not only was profitable for ancient Egypt, but made it easier to keep power and stability of the kingdoms.

Documented evidence exists as early as the reign of Sneferu, in the 26th century BC, war campaigns in the territory of Nubia, in which war-captives would be labeled skrw-ꜥnḫ - and Libyans all of whom would be used to perform labour—regardless of their will otherwise—or – if warranted, would be conscripted into the military.

Nubia was targeted—because of its close geographical proximity, cultural similarity, and competitiveness in imperial dominion, and then the scope of campaigns intended to acquire foreign war captives expanded to Libya and Asia.

When borrowed money owed to wealthier individuals in Egyptian society could not be paid back, family members – especially women – were sold in return into slavery.

[10] Slaves, especially of Levantine origin were grouped in ghetto camps to perform labor for the state where they lived in harsh conditions, often including beating by their masters.

One of the Lahun papyri describes an example of this occurring: "Order issued by the Great Prison in year 31, third month of the summer season, day 5, that he be condemned with all his family to labor for life on state land, according to the decision of the court."

[10] One of the Berlin papyri show that by the time of the Second Intermediate Period, a slave could be owned by both an elite individual (like the king) and a community.

At Medinet Habu, defeated Sea Peoples are recorded as having been captured as prisoners of war and reduced to slavery.

One manuscript known as Papyrus Harris I records Ramses III claiming to have captured innumerable foreign slaves: "I brought back in great numbers those that my sword has spared, with their hands tied behind their backs before my horses, and their wives and children in tens of thousands, and their livestock in hundreds of thousands.

Ramesside Egypt saw a development in the institution of slavery where slaves could now become objects of private (rather than just public) property, and they could be bought and sold.

Some chattel slaves began as free people who were found guilty of committing illicit acts and were forced to give up their freedom.

The origin of this type of slavery is difficult to pinpoint but some say the slaves were willing to be held captive in return for entrance into Egypt.

[8] The full extent of the origins of shabtis is unclear but historians do recognize that women were paid or compensated in some way for their labor whilst men were not.

[17] This specific type of weaponry to torture the slave has many local names in Egyptian documents but the preferred term is 'sheyba'.

Several departments in the Ancient Egyptian government were able to draft workers from the general population to work for the state with a corvée labor system.

Masters were allowed to utilize the abilities of their slaves by employing them in different manners including domestic services (cooks, maids, brewers, nannies, etc.)

It is difficult to use the word 'free' as a term to describe slave's political or social independence due to the lack of sources and material from this ancient time period.

[25][26][20][27] The allegation that Israelite slaves built the pyramids was first made by Jewish historian Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews during the first century CE, an account that was subsequently popularized during the Renaissance period.

[28] Whilst the idea that the Israelites served as slaves in Egypt features in the Bible, scholars generally agree that the story constitutes an origin myth rather than a historical reality.

[29][20] But the fact that the Bible's depiction of Israelite servitude accords with what it is known about slavery in ancient Egypt has convinced some scholars that the story probably has some historical basis.

[28] Modern archaeologists consider that the Israelites were indigenous to Canaan and never resided in ancient Egypt in significant numbers.