History of the telephone in the United States
The arrival of the smartphone in the early 21st century provided every user a small mobile computer with microphone and speaker, that was bundled with powerful features, such as cameras and Internet access by operation of apps.
After AT&T blocked independents from its long-distance service, and bought control of telegraph monopoly Western Union in 1907, antitrust activists launched an opposition.
[11][12] In 1921, the Willis Graham Act amended Kingsbury to allow the Interstate Commerce Commission to approve AT&T purchases of other telephone companies.
[17] Historian Leonard S. Reich (1985) argues that in the early 1900s, AT&T and other companies established research labs as a defensive measure against competitors threatening their core businesses.
To maintain dominance, AT&T concentrated on creating a nationwide telephone system that provided good technology and the widest possible long-distance service.
"[20] Theodore Vail, president of AT&T (1907–1919) and his successors Harry Bates Thayer (1919–1925) and Walter Sherman Gifford (1925–1948) gave heavy emphasis and large budgets to advanced engineering innovation.
One key reason was their awareness that telephone users were pleased that the switchboard operators acted as personal assistants, and this supposed role helped increase demand across all segments of the working population.
[29] In the 1974 United States v. AT&T antitrust lawsuit the U.S. Justice Department and AT&T reached a compromise in 1982 that included the divestiture of AT&T's ("Ma Bell") local operating subsidiaries.
The iPhone's touch screen interface, sleek design, and extensive app store quickly made it the most popular smartphone on the market.
It was a prestigious job for ambitious young middle class woman in a small logging town who needed money for college.
The role demanded quick decision-making, meticulous attention to detail, a very good memory for names, and the ability to handle criticism.
The full-time operators were on duty 56 hours per week, and while they often grumbled about being overworked by a harsh boss, Johnson says they were reasonably compensated at $50 a month.
Senior management had recognized the importance of women operators to their competitive advantage and had chosen to modify existing technology to accommodate this labor force, rather than replacing them with automatic switches.
[45] Operators were rule-followers, but according to April Middeljans, in drama, film, and magazines, they were often portrayed as rule-breaking rebels who challenged societal norms.
Through disaster tales, detective stories, and romantic comedies, fiction writers suggest that operators were not just controlled by society, but rather played an active role in regulating it and shaping the lives of their clients and themselves.
These stories reflect a deep admiration for strong female leads and a preference for human ingenuity and decision-making over machine efficiency.
However, their unruly conduct, defiance of authority, and impolite demeanor towards customers resulted in their replacement by women, who were considered, "all the things that were described by the vanished word 'ladylike'--calm, gracious, diffident, never profane.
[48] In the United States, any switchboard operator employed by an independently owned public telephone company which had not more than seven hundred and fifty stations was excluded from the Equal Pay Act of 1963.
As a result, AT&T was found guilty of violating Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which prohibited sex discrimination in employment.
A series of consent decrees were enacted between 1973 and 1979, mandating that AT&T establish affirmative action and upgrade and transfer programs, and provide back pay to individuals who were previously denied promotions due to their gender.
[51][52][53] In the 1919 strike, after five days, Postmaster General Burleson agreed to negotiate an agreement between the union and the telephone company, resulting in an increase in pay for the operators and recognition of the right to bargain collectively.
Starting in 1924 it brought in the National Research Council to run experiments that used test rooms to measure the effects of brighter or dimmer overhead lighting.
The company faced growing public scrutiny in the 1920s over reports of health problems, specifically nervous disorders, resulting from the stress of operating the switchboard.
"[61] The telephone had a significant impact on American business in the early 20th century, transforming the way that companies conducted their operations and interacted with customers.
[63] The telephone made it much easier for businesses to communicate with customers, suppliers, and other companies, as long as no written record was needed such as telegrams and the mail provided.
For example, a sales team working in the downtown office district could call the factory located on the outskirts of the city regarding the status of a particular order.
[68] Michele Martin argues that in rural areas in the North, independent telephone companies created party line systems with relaxed usage rules and lower rates, making phones accessible to most homes.
Because of First Amendment free-speech protestions, state laws governing political telephone calls are much less stringent than those applying to commercial messages.
Until then people had to find the number for a nearby police or fire station or hospital, and speak directly to someone who might not be prepared to handle emergencies.
To counter such sentiments, AT&T launched a major advertising campaign, endorsing national commercial integration through telephony as a constructive measure.
