[25] Beginning in the 12th century, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held sway to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast.

[35] Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela.

Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,[60] as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea.

[65] Christianity was the first world religion to be adopted in modern Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country, Debre Sina, was built in the fourth century.

The Abyssinian Tigrinya-speaking Christians controlled the highlands, the nomadic Tigre and Beni Amer clans the western lowlands, the Arabic Muslims of Massawa and Dahlak, and the pastoralist Afars the Dankalia region.

[72] The region, ruled by a local governor called the Bahr Negash, was first documented in an obscure land grant of the 11th-century Zagwe king Tatadim.

[73][74][75] Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob strengthened imperial presence in the area by increasing the power of the Bahr Negash and placing him above other local chiefs, establishing a military colony of settlers from Shewa, and forcing the Muslims on the coast to pay tribute.

Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristóvão da Gama in the military campaign that eventually defeated the Adal Sultanate in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543.

Ethiopian Emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently by 1589 they were once again compelled to withdraw to the coast.

On 15 November 1869, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Italian missionary Giuseppe Sapeto on behalf of the Rubattino Shipping Company.

In 1882, the Italian government formally took possession of the Assab colony from its commercial owners and expanded their control to include Massawa and most of the Eritrean coastal lowlands after the Egyptians withdrew from Eritrea in February 1885.

Uccialli) signed the same year, Menelik OI of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition.

His subsequent victory over rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.

Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened many new factories that produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities.

The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II.

In the coastal areas, common marine species include dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta ray.

Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 that claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides.

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region.

[181] Besides accusing the West of deliberate demonization through smear-campaigns, it also sees itself targeted by sanctions and western supported war against Eritrea through the Ethiopian group TPLF.

[232] The U.S. Department of State estimated that as of 2019[update], 49% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 49% followed Islam, and 2% observed other religions, including traditional faiths and animism.

Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, and numerous other Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely.

[243] The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.

[citation needed] Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low-income households.

[252][253] The nation has a rich oral and literary tradition which ranges across all nine ethnic groups, it includes a wealth of poetry and proverbs, songs and chants, folk tales, histories and legends.

Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics, as many other populations in the region.

A statement from UNESCO read: It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.Eritrea's ethnic groups each have their distinct styles of music and accompanying dances.

Kunama ethnic group have dances that include rituals, these are - "tuka (rites of passage); indoda (prayers for rain); sangga-nena (peaceful mediation); and shatta (showcases of endurance and courage)".

A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb, or fish.

Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features more Italian influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including more pasta and greater use of curry powders and cumin.

[286] More than 20 Eritrean riders from Eritrea have signed professional contracts to international cycling teams[citation needed] Daniel Teklehaimanot and Merhawi Kudus became the first cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France in the 2015 edition of the race.