Electric vehicle battery
Growth in the industry has generated interest in securing ethical battery supply chains, which presents many challenges and has become an important geopolitical issue.
For example, lithium-ion cells containing single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) show increased mechanical strength, suppressing degradation and leading to a longer battery lifetime.
Lithium titanate or lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) batteries are known for their high safety profile, with reduced risk of thermal runaway and effective operation over a wide temperature range.
When used properly, nickel–metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and in the surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs that still operate well after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) and over a decade of service.
The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the need to heat the electrolyte to about 270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard.
To address the environmental impact of this process, the supply chain is increasingly focusing on sustainability, with efforts to reduce reliance on rare-earth minerals and improve recycling.
[50] In the cell manufacturing stage, the prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format.
Because battery development is the core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode, anode and electrolytes on the pack.
Not only because of a predicted tightened supply of nickel, cobalt and lithium in the future, also recycling EV batteries has the potential to maximize the environmental benefit.
Xu et al. predicted that in the sustainable development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known reserves in the future if no recycling is in place.
On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges.
In general, in addition to promoting the growth of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV batteries.
Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require 87 times more than 2015 of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling covering part of the demand in future.
[62] Distributive and energy injustice concerns persist as resource-rich but economically disadvantaged communities bear social and ecological costs while wealthier nations benefit from these technologies.
[65][66] In many cases, mining projects proceed without meaningful consultation/consent, leaving local communities without a voice in decisions impacting them, highlighting issues in procedural injustice.
[67][68][69] Regulatory policies, like the DRC Mining Code[70] and OECD Due Diligence Guidance,[71] aim to address issues, but face weak enforcement, corruption, and non-binding commitments that limited their effectiveness.
Rising demand for EV batteries has intensified mining for nickel, copper, lithium, and cobalt, particularly in developing countries including the Philippines,[72] the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),[73] Chile,[74][75] and Indonesia.
[76] Nickel mining in Indonesia has caused significant deforestation and heavy metal contamination in rivers, affecting communities reliant on these ecosystems.
[73] In Chile's Salar de Atacama, lithium extraction consumes 65% of the region's freshwater supply, worsening droughts and impacting Indigenous communities.
[citation needed] However, the cost of EV batteries has been decreasing steadily over the years due to advancements in technology, economies of scale, and improvements in manufacturing processes.
The energy is generated from a variety of domestic resources, such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear, natural gas, photovoltaic solar cell panels and wind.
[98] A December 2024 study published in Nature Energy has prompted significant discussion within the scientific and automotive communities regarding the longevity of electric vehicle (EV) batteries.
This finding challenges the assumption that laboratory tests, conducted under controlled and often harsher conditions, accurately predict battery life in everyday use.
[99] With rapid recharging, the concern about limited travel ranges loses relevance as the duration of a stops at public charging stations can be minimized.
There is a growing electric vehicle charging network[101] with DC powers of 150 kW and more which can add up to 300 km of range within a typical 30 minute break.
The ACEA has chosen the VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 (IEC 62196 Type 2) for deployment in Europe, which, without a latch, means unnecessary extra power requirements for the locking mechanism.
The advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe.
For example, patents relevant to the use of Nickel metal hydride cells in cars were held by an offshoot of Chevron Corporation, a petroleum company, who maintained veto power over any sale or licensing of NiMH technology.
In January 2020, Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, stated that the advancements in Li-ion battery technology have made ultra-capacitors unnecessary for electric vehicles.
[128] On 2 May 2022, President Biden announced the administration will begin a $3.16 billion plan to boost domestic manufacturing and recycling of batteries, in a larger effort to shift the country away from gas-powered cars to electric vehicles.
