The game originated in Portsmouth, England in 1954 when Alan Blake, a founder of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called Octopush as a means of keeping the club's members interested and active over the cold winter months when open-water diving lost its appeal.

[2][3] Underwater hockey is now played worldwide, with the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, abbreviated CMAS, as the world governing body.

[5][6] Despite this, CMAS, the world governing body for underwater hockey, still erroneously maintains on its website that the sport originated with the British Royal Navy in the same time period.

[7] The first Octopush competition was a three-way tournament between teams from Southsea, Bournemouth, and Brighton underwater hockey clubs in early 1955.

The UK's Octopush used a small paddle to push the puck whilst the South Africans used a mini hockey stick.

Ten years later, the Underwater Hockey Association of British Columbia (UHABC) was formed and received support from the BC government.

[citation needed] Underwater hockey has been played in Australia since 1966, again because of Norm Leibeck, the same Australian who returned from Canada with his Canadian bride Marlene, and it now attracts players from a wide range of backgrounds there.

It can be seen that the game was much slower and the puck was not flicked at all, in contrast to the modern sport[14] where the substantial changes in equipment, team size, and other factors have helped make the game the international sport it is today, with 68 teams from 19 [15] countries competing at the 18th World Championship in 2013 at Eger in Hungary making this the pinnacle in terms of international competition to date.

Before the start of play the puck is placed in the centre of the pool, and the players wait in the water whilst touching the wall above the goal they are defending.

At the start-of-play signal (usually a buzzer or a gong) members of both teams are free to swim anywhere in the play area and try to score by manoeuvring the puck into the opponents' goal using only their stick.

Timing of games can vary by competition due to a number of reasons, most commonly organisational logistics; however, tier tournaments tend not to see any variation.

Though a 2023 study on submersion times in matches ranging from club friendlies to national championship matches found that the average player's submersion time was 12.1 seconds when in possession of the puck and 9.3 when without the puck, thus falling short of the 45 second breath hold requirement for clarification as an extreme-apnoea sport.

[22] Players wear a diving mask, snorkel and fins, and carry in one (either) hand a short stick or pusher for playing the puck.

A full list of equipment is given below: There are usually no restrictions on swimwear, however baggy trunks or shorts are not recommended as they reduce speed and increase drag in the water.

In order to maximise the efficiency of breathing and reduce drag underwater snorkels are often short with a wide bore and may include a drain valve.

The stick (also referred to as a pusher) is relatively short and is coloured either white or black to indicate the player's team.

Many underwater hockey players manufacture their own sticks to their preferred shape and style, although there are increasingly more mass-produced designs to suit the majority (such as Bentfish, Britbat, CanAm, Dorsal, Stingray etc.).

[23] Safety gear includes ear protection, usually in the form of a water polo cap[24] and as a secondary indicator of the player's team (coloured black/dark or white/pale as appropriate).

The Official Rules, which are available for download in PDF form without charge, define (with illustrations) a valid goal, the fouls and signals, the dimensions of the playing area, sticks, and goals, team composition and substitution procedure, and additional rules and arrangements for multi-team tournaments and championships.

Very few pools have underwater viewing ports, and since the action is all below the surface, an observer would usually have to enter the water to see the skill and complexities of the game.

Spectators may either put on mask, fins and snorkel and enter the pool for a view of the playing area, or possibly take advantage of the work of underwater videographers who have recorded major tournaments.

[clarification needed] Organisers of major tournaments are usually the point of contact for acquiring footage of underwater hockey matches.

[29] The Underwater Hockey World Championships, organised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)[30][31], have been held every two years since 1980.

These were intended to be multi-disciplinary events thereby grouping UWH with other CMAS-represented sports including fin swimming and underwater rugby.

It was billed as a World Championship but only one non-European country competed (South Africa); France won the Open division while Great Britain took the Women's title.

WAA attempted to continue with the original World Championship series on a biennial basis during years ending with an even number.

However, in Europe at least, well-organised international tournaments without CMAS or WAA influence (such as at Breda in the Netherlands, Barcelona in Spain, or České Budějovice in the Czech Republic) continue to be regularly attended by a range of club teams from across the continent.

As part of this plan the Commission developed an Age Group-based International Championship incorporating Under 19, Under 23 and Masters (Men >35, Women >32) Grades.

As the event was non-compliant with the CMAS Competition procedures, Scotland was able to compete as a separate country rather than within a combined entity as Great Britain.

[39] As the surviving governing body, as of August 2013 CMAS has the following countries and territories affiliated with its Underwater Hockey Commission: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, United States of America.