In the 12th century, Transoxiana was conquered by the Qara Khitai (Western Liao), a sinicized Khitan dynasty, they brought to Central Asia the Chinese system of government.

Although Turko-Mongol infiltration into Central Asia had started early,[26] and the influence of the Turkic tribes was felt in Khwarazm before the campaigns of the Mongols, after the beginning of the Chingizid rule, bilingualism became more common.

[27] It is generally believed that these ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples were linguistically assimilated by smaller but dominant Turkic-speaking groups while the sedentary population finally adopted the Persian language, the traditional lingua franca of the eastern Islamic lands.

[36] A study on modern Central Asians comparing them to ancient historical samples found that Uzbeks can be modeled as 48.8–65.1% Iron Age Indo-Iranians, and 34.9–51.2% Eastern Steppe Xiongnu, from the Mongolian Plateau.

Because of this trade on what became known as the Silk Route, Bukhara and Samarkand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at times Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) was one of the most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity.

[48][full citation needed] In 350–375 AD, Sogdiana and Tashkent oasis were captured by the nomadic Xionite tribes who arrived from the steppe regions of Central Asia.

The Arabs, on the other hand, were led by a brilliant general, Qutaybah ibn Muslim, and were also highly motivated by the desire to spread their new faith, Islam, the official beginning of which was in AD 622.

[58][full citation needed] Despite brief Arab rule, Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic, remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion.

[63] They were rewarded for supporting the Abbasids in Transoxania and Khorasan, and with their established capitals located in Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, and Herat, they carved their kingdom after defeating the Saffarids.

The four grandsons of the dynasty's founder, Saman Khuda, had been rewarded with provinces for their faithful service to the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun: Nuh obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Fergana; Yahya, Shash; and Elyas, Herat.

In the late 10th century, as the Samanids began to lose control of Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) and northeastern Iran, some of these soldiers came to positions of power in the government of the region, and eventually established their own states, albeit highly Persianized.

The Ghaznavid state, which captured Samanid domains south of the Amu Darya, was able to conquer large areas of Iran, Afghanistan, and northern India apart from Central Asia, during the reign of Sultan Mahmud.

[69] The founder of the Western Karakhanid Kaganate, Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068), for the first time erected a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region.

[71] The dominance of Ghazna was curtailed, however, when the Seljuks led themselves into the western part of the region, conquering the Ghaznavid territory of Khorazm (also spelled Khorezm and Khwarazm).

[75][full citation needed] In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts, the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence.

The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Eastern Kipchak-speaking nomadic tribes called Taza Uzbeks who were living to the north of the Aral Sea.

[81] The term "92 Uzbek tribes", which appeared in the fifteenth-century Dasht-i Qipchaq, began to be used with a variety of meanings in the following centuries depending on the political and cultural context.

[82] Near the end of the 16th century, the Uzbek states[83] of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs.

As European-dominated ocean transport expanded and some trading centers were destroyed, cities such as Bukhara, Merv, and Samarkand in the Khanate of Bukhora and Khiva and Urganch (Urgench) in Khorazm began to steadily decline.

However, this move increased Uzbek nationalism [ru], which had long resented Soviet policies such as the imposition of cotton monoculture and the suppression of Islamic traditions.

The Islamist Uzbek As-Sayyid Qāsim bin Abd al-Jabbaar Al-Andijaani (Arabic: السيد قاسم بن عبد الجبار الأنديجاني) was born in Fergana valley's Andijan city in Turkestan (Central Asia).

[98] He then fled to Afghanistan, then to British India and then to Hijaz where he continued his education in Mecca and Medina and wrote several works on Islam and engaged in anti-Soviet activities.

In the recent times, many Uzbeks started to migrate to various countries as labour migrants, especially to Russia, South Korea, the UAE,[99] Germany,[100] Poland,[101] Saudi Arabia, etc.

[119] Uzbeks are said to have included 92 tribes in their orbit: Manghut, Qiyat, Qipchaq, Khitai, Qanghli, Kenigas, Durman, Darghut, Shoran, Shurin, Toma, Bahrin, Giray, Aghrikur, Anghit, Barkut, Tubin, Sart, Romdan, Matin, Busa, Yojqar, Qilwa, Dojar, Jurat, Qurlat, Mehdi, Kilaj, Sakhtiyon, Qirgh, Ming, Yuz, Salor, Loqai, Qushchi, Kerait, Chaqmok, Utarchi, Turcoman, Arlot, Kait, Qirghuz, Qalon, Ushin, Ormaq, Chubi, Lechi, Qari, Moghol, Hafiz dad Kaln, Belad Bustan, Quchi, Qataghan, Barlas, Yabu, Jalair, Musit, Naiman, Semarjiq, Qarluq, Arghun, Oklan, Qalmaq, Fuladchi, Jalot Uljin or Olchin, Chimbay, Tilab, Machar or Majar, Ojinbai, Badai, Kelchi, Ilaj, Jebirgan, Botiya, Timan, Yankuz, Tatar, Uighur, Baghlan or Baghan, Danghut, Manghut, Shagird, Pesha, Tushlub, Onli, Biyat, Ozlaji, Joslayi, Tuwadiq, and Ghariband Jit.

After the independence of Uzbekistan from the former Soviet Union, the government decided to replace the Cyrillic script with a modified Latin alphabet, specifically for Turkic languages.

[130] Uzbek clothing includes a loose-fitting cotton coat, called Chapan or Kaftan, which is usually made from a variety of colorful stripes, or other types of patterns.

The botton of the sleeves, center edges, hem and neckline of the coat ate sown with a decorative braid, which was believed to protect from "evil powers".

The band is viewed as an important accessory, and can be made of fine fabrics and silks, decorated with intricate silver embroidery, and fitted with little bags for tobacco and keys.

Before the Bolshevik Revolution and the subsequent establishment of communism in Central Asia, women wore traditional veils, known as parandga, on all occasions in public.

In the western region of Khorezm and in the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan, men, also wear a traditional fur hat, made out of sheepskin in predominantly white and black colors.