Witchcraft in early modern Britain

Prior to the 16th century, Witchcraft -- i.e. any magical or supernatural practices made by mankind -- was often seen as a healing art, performed by people referred to as the cunning folk.

2. c. 5) reversed the law, making it illegal not to practice witchcraft but to either claim that there were people with magical powers or to accuse someone of being a witch in Great Britain,[3] (though these crimes were no longer punishable by death).

There were thought to be many types of witchcraft that one could practice, such as alchemy; the purification, perfection, maturation and changing of various substances,[4] and astrology; the reading of the heavens to predict one’s future, however in the early modern period the most concern was over that which involved dealing with the devil.

The book's success was widespread, but his scepticism in regards to magic was not what drew in most of its admirers; The Discoverie of Witchcraft also contained details regarding the belief in and practices of witches - it held sections on alchemy, spirits and conjuring, much of which is thought to have inspired Shakespeare's descriptions of the witches in Macbeth[9] Another book which was thought to play a part in the creation of Macbeth was Daemonologie by King James VI of Scotland.

The trials took place in North Berwick between the years of 1590 and 1592, and led to at least 70 accused witches being condemned to violent torture and in most cases, death.

[15] Most of the information we have on the North Berwick trials was found in the King's book Daemonologie, as well as a pamphlet entitled Newes from Scotland that was published in London.

The three were known locally to be herbal healers,[20] and following their dismissal as servants from the Castle of Belvoir the Earl and two of his sons died whilst the Countess and her daughter suffered from violent illness.

[21] It was five years after these events, and after the hanging of a group of witches in Leicestershire,[22] that the Flowers were arrested on suspicion of harming the Earl of Rutland's family through sorcery.

Nevertheless there were still a series of notable trials that occurred, the first of which was Lady Alice Kyteler (described above) and her maidservant Petronilla de Meath, who was tortured and forced into confessing them both to be witches which led to them being burnt at the stake.

[3] Duncan "shared news of the dead, coughed up ectoplasm (typically muslin), and ventriloquized, so that cabinets appeared to contain speaking mediums".

The effects of this weather were drastic - crops began to fail, livestock didn't produce enough milk or meat and people fell ill.[30] During this time there was no knowledge of climate change and little rational explanation could be found, so it is believed by the German historian Wolfgang Behringer, and many other notable historians, that in their desperation for a solution and explanation, the people of Britain (and Europe as a whole) blamed it on witchcraft.

[31] Older women of the lower classes were the easiest to blame, with little societal standing to defend themselves, and so often fell victim to witch related accusations.

It wasn't until the beginning of the 16th century that the Church and the State recognised witchcraft as a legitimate practice, this was in a time of great religious conflict in Britain, and many historians have theorised that these two events are connected.

[27] These two economists describe this process as a non-price competition, and claim that this serves as an explanation for Ireland's low number of witch trials[26] - the country remained strongly Catholic even after the Reformation.