Women's suffrage in India
In 1918, when Britain granted limited suffrage to women property holders, the law did not apply to British citizens in other parts of the Empire.
Between 1919 and 1929, all of the British Provinces, as well as most of the Princely states granted women the right to vote and in some cases, allowed them to stand in local elections.
The Rajkot State granted full universal suffrage in 1923 and in that year elected the first two women to serve on a Legislative Council in India.
In 1924, the Muddiman Committee conducted a further study and recommended that the British Parliament allow women to stand in elections, which generated a reform on voting rights in 1926.
Provisions for elections were adopted in July, India gained its independence from Britain in August, and voting rolls began being prepared in early 1948.
[1] The advent of World War I and the use in propaganda rhetoric of terms like 'self-determination' gave rise for hope among middle-class Indians that change was imminent.
[2] For English-educated elites, who had predominantly become urbanised and depended on professional income, British rule was beneficial,[3] but they also recognised that restrictions on their wives impacted their own careers.
[7] When he was ousted in 1917, his replacement, Edwin Montagu, gained approval to organise with Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy of India, a consultation for a limited political devolution of British power.
Founding members included S. Ambujammal, Annie Besant, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Mary Poonen Lukose, Begam Hasrat Mohani, Saralabai Naik, Dhanvanthi Rama Rau, Muthulakshmi Reddy, Mangalammal Sadasivier, and Herabai Tata.
In addition to the women physically present, telegrams of support were sent to Montagu by Francesca Arundale, Abala Bose, Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, Mrs. Mazur-al-Haque, Uma Nehru, Mrs. R. V. Nilakanta, Miss H. Petit, Ramabai Ranade, and Shrimati Padmabai Sanjiva Rao.
[16] Suffragists were active in drawing up petitions[17] and published updates about the struggle in Stri Dharma, urging support for women's political empowerment as a part of the anti-colonial movement against Britain.
[18] Stri Dharma was edited by Reddy and Srimati Malati Patwardhan and aimed to develop both local and international support for women's equality.
[30] It limited suffrage, barring most of India's middle class, as it restricted the vote to those who had an annual income of more than ₹10,000–20,000; land revenues in excess of ₹250–500 per annum; or those recognised for their high level of public work or scholarship.
By combining their goals, both nationalists and feminists benefited by articulating their common issues, resulting in more supporters to help with resolving their challenges.
[39] In 1921, the Madras Presidency voted to remove the restriction on standing for elections at the local level, striking the sex qualification for women.
[48] In 1923, four women, Hari Hadgikson, Avantikabai Gokhale [mr], Bachubai Lotvala, and Naidu, were elected to the Bombay City Corporation.
The Committee made no change to implementation by provincial authorisation,[53] but did recommend that the bill be reformed to allow women to be elected to legislative positions.
An affiliate of the International Council of Women, the group, which included Marahani of Baroda, Tarabai Premchand, Dowager Begum Saheb of Bhopal, and Cornelia Sorabji, strove to maintain connections with the British and focused on petition politics.
[56] Mithan Lam (née Tata) joined the council and led the legislative committee, which worked to improve the status of women.
[61] Also in 1926, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, an active worker in registering women to vote,[62] became the first woman to stand for a legislative seat in the British provinces, but lost by a small margin.
The major all-India organisations continued to demand universal suffrage, whereas British women's groups favoured proposals which maintained the social order.
[69] When Gandhi began the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, the British response was to ban the Indian National Congress and arrest its leadership.
[74][73] Proving their leadership abilities,[71] the women held daily councils to plan the day-to-day activities,[72] including protesting at liquor and shops that dealt in imported cloth.
Those chosen to participate with the commission included Begum Jahan Ara Shah Nawaz and Radhabai Subbarayan, though the British appointed them without consulting any women's organisations.
[80] A delegation of women, led by Rani Lalit Kumari (Dowager Rani of Mandi), and including Mrs. Ahmad, a former council member from the United Provinces Legislature and Satyavati Singh Chitambar,[81] president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of India,[82] recommended that women be enfranchised based upon marriage.
They rejected sex disqualification for candidacy, employment, holding public office, or voting, as well as special provisions to make places for women in the legislature.
[92] In 1938, the Indian National Congress set up a subcommittee, which included Ali, Chaudhurani, Kaur, Naidu, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Rajwade, Mridula Sarabhai, and Jahanara Shahnawaz.
[93][94] Similarly, that same year the All-India Muslim League established a sub-committee for women and encouraged their participation in fundraising, mass processions and public meetings.
[114] One of the first actions of the Assembly was to establish universal adult suffrage, eliminating the gender, income, property, and educational restrictions on voting.
[116] The provisions officially replaced those contained in the Government of India Act of 1935, thereafter being adopted by the Constituent Assembly in November 1949 for the formal enforcement date of 26 January 1950.
