Ballot laws of the Roman Republic

[5] Aside from controlling the Italian Peninsula, it had gained provinces in Iberia, Greece, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and North Africa, in addition to its many client states and allies.

[7] The Italian land conquered by Rome—technically ager publicus, or public land—in practice fell into the hands of rich aristocrats, leading to the rise of large estates called latifundia.

[9] Due to economies of scale, the use of slave labor, and the appropriation of previously public land, many small farmers found it impossible to compete with the latifundia and were forced to sell their farms.

[10] The dispossession of these farmers, many of whom moved to Rome and became part of the landless poor, caused profound social tension and political upheaval.

[citation needed] The constitution of the Roman Republic consisted of a complex mix of elected officials (magistrates), popular assemblies, and the Senate.

The first elected the higher magistrates,[13] including the two consuls, who held extensive powers over all Roman citizens and were commanders-in-chief of the army.

The Tribal Assembly elected the lower magistrates:[13] the quaestors, who managed state finances, and the curule aediles, responsible for public works.

[19] In summary, Rome had a mixed constitution,[20] with monarchic, oligarchic, and democratic elements represented by the senior magistrates, the Senate, and the assemblies respectively.

The ancient Greek writer Polybius wrote that at the time of the Second Punic War, the aristocratic element was dominant in Rome.

[22] In the second century BC, the assemblies would pass important laws on a wide range of issues, including citizenship, finance, social matters, religion, and war and peace.

In an attempt to buy votes, candidates would hold lavish banquets and games, or even directly bribe voters with wine, oil, or money.

Written in the last years of the Republic, De legibus is a fictional dialogue between Cicero, his brother Quintus, and their mutual friend Atticus.

[29] Pliny remarks: You remember, no doubt, having often read what commotions were occasioned by the ballot law (lex tabellaria), and how much its author was both approved and condemned.

[30]The first ballot law (the lex Gabinia tabellaria) was introduced in 139 BC for the election of magistrates by the tribune Aulus Gabinius,[31] whom Cicero called "an unknown and sordid agitator".

[33] According to the Cambridge Ancient History, the law was undoubtedly justified as giving freedom to the people, but may also have been intended to curb bribery of voters by candidates.

[34] Ursula Hall believes that the law "was undoubtedly largely supported by men of substance wanting to challenge aristocratic control of office.

In purpose this law was not, in a modern sense, 'democratic', not designed to give more power to voters, much less candidates, from lower ranks in the Roman system.

However, Alexander Yakobson argues that the Gabinian law was a genuine piece of popular legislation benefiting a broad section of the electorate.

The passing of the law was resisted by the tribune Marcus Antius Briso who threatened to apply his veto, with the support of one of the consuls of the year.

The leaders of the State held a different opinion; in a matter that concerned the safety of the optimates, they dreaded the impetuosity of the masses and the licence afforded by the ballot.

[46] This act of violence marked the first instance of political bloodshed in Republican history, and was considered especially egregious because the person of a tribune was sacrosanct.

The third ballot law was introduced in 131 BC by Gaius Papirius Carbo, and applied to the ratification and repeal of legislation—which, by this point, was mainly the duty of the Plebeian Council.

These included an extension to Tiberius' land redistribution bill; a grain subsidy for poorer citizens; reforms to the judicial system; the free issue of clothes and equipment to soldiers; the founding of overseas colonies to help the landless; a reduction in the length of military service; and citizenship for Italian allies.

[51] In 107 BC, a Roman army under the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus was dealt a crushing defeat by the Tigurini at the Battle of Burdigala.

"[3] One of the justifications for the ballot laws—aside from protecting the freedom of the people—may have been to curb corruption, since it was no longer possible for candidates to check whether a citizen voted for him.

This made bribery a more competitive affair as candidates attempted to outbid each other, either by holding lavish games and feasts or by directly promising money to voters.

There are other possible reasons for the change to simultaneous voting, including putting the tribes on an equal footing, or avoiding the bandwagon effect.

Now coin types started to change annually and to reflect designs chosen by the individual officials in charge of the mint each year.

The new coins displayed a varied array of types that could refer to religious symbols, political ideas, anniversaries of historical events, monuments or buildings in Rome, or to the achievements and status of the moneyer's ancestors.

At the same time, the shift gave the moneyers themselves and their traditionally relatively humble job at the mint much more publicity and symbolic political capital than ever before.