Bioprospecting
Bioprospecting (also known as biodiversity prospecting) is the exploration of natural sources for small molecules, macromolecules and biochemical and genetic information that could be developed into commercially valuable products for the agricultural,[2][3] aquaculture,[4][5] bioremediation,[4][6] cosmetics,[7][8] nanotechnology,[4][9] or pharmaceutical[2][10] industries.
[11] Terrestrial plants, fungi and actinobacteria have been the focus of many past bioprospecting programs,[12] but interest is growing in less explored ecosystems (e.g. seas and oceans) and organisms (e.g. myxobacteria, archaea) as a means of identifying new compounds with novel biological activities.
[10][15][16] When a region's biological resources or indigenous knowledge are unethically appropriated or commercially exploited without providing fair compensation, this is known as biopiracy.
Rhizobium is a genus of soil bacteria used as biofertilizers,[20] Bacillus thuringiensis (also called Bt) and the annonins (obtained from seeds of the plant Annona squamosa) are examples of biopesticides,[21][22][19][23] and valnemulin and tiamulin (discovered and developed from the basidiomycete fungi Omphalina mutila and Clitopilus passeckerianus) are examples of veterinary antibiotics.
[24][25] Examples of bioprospecting products used in bioremediation include Coriolopsis gallica- and Phanerochaete chrysosporium-derived laccase enzymes, used for treating beer factory wastewater and for dechlorinating and decolorizing paper mill effluent.
[9] Cosmetics and personal care products obtained from bioprospecting include Porphyridium cruentum-derived oligosaccharide and oligoelement blends used to treat erythema (rosacea, flushing and dark circles),[7] Xanthobacter autotrophicus-derived zeaxanthin used for skin hydration and UV protection,[8] Clostridium histolyticum-derived collagenases used for skin regeneration,[8] and Microsporum-derived keratinases used for hair removal.
Bioprospecting-derived small molecules (also known as natural products) are more structurally complex than synthetic chemicals, and therefore show greater specificity towards biological targets.
[13] With the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) now ratified by most countries, bioprospecting has the potential to bring biodiversity-rich and technologically advanced nations together, and benefit them both educationally and economically (eg.
[2][35] For useful molecules identified through microbial bioprospecting, scale up of production is feasible at reasonable cost because the producing microorganism can be cultured in a bioreactor.
[38] This problem may be resolvable by genetically manipulating easier-to-culture organisms such as Escherichia coli or Streptomyces coelicolor to express the gene cluster responsible for the desired activity.
[2][35] Drug development is an inherently expensive and time-consuming process with low success rates, and this makes it difficult to quantify the value of potential products when drafting bioprospecting agreements.
This problem is sometimes resolvable by identifying the part of the natural product structure responsible for activity and developing a simplified synthetic analogue.
Prior to collecting biological material or traditional knowledge, the correct permissions must be obtained from the source country, land owner etc.
CLSI, ISO, NIH, EURL ECVAM, OECD) is desirable because this improves test result accuracy and reproducibility.
pure chemical compounds for which accurate bioactivity and toxicity data are available), to set limits on cell line passage number (eg.
For example, the sulfhydryl-scavenging assay used to detect histone acetyltransferase inhibition can give a false positive result if the test compound reacts covalently with cysteines.
[45] In the 1990s many large pharmaceutical and drug discovery companies responded to charges of biopiracy by ceasing work on natural products, turning to combinatorial chemistry to develop novel compounds.
[50][51] The Maya ICBG case was among the first to draw attention to the problems of distinguishing between benign forms of bioprospecting and unethical biopiracy, and to the difficulties of securing community participation and prior informed consent for would-be bioprospectors.
[52] In 1994, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and W. R. Grace and Company received a European patent on methods of controlling fungal infections in plants using a composition that included extracts from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), which grows throughout India and Nepal.
In 1996 South Africa's Council for Scientific and Industrial Research began working with companies, including Unilever, to develop dietary supplements based on Hoodia.
[citation needed] Generally the existence, structure and synthesis of those compounds is not a part of the indigenous medical knowledge that led researchers to analyze the plant in the first place.
In the United States, patent law can be used to protect "isolated and purified" compounds – even, in one instance, a new chemical element (see USP 3,156,523).
Under the rules of the CBD, bioprospectors are required to obtain informed consent to access such resources, and must share any benefits with the biodiversity-rich country.
[81] Others claim that the main problem is the failure of national governments to pass appropriate laws implementing the provisions of the CBD.
[83] The CBD has been ratified, acceded or accepted by 196 countries and jurisdictions globally, with exceptions including the Holy See and United States.
[87] The texts are being recorded from Tamil, Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian and Arabic; made available to patent offices in English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish.
