The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin.

While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed on high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands.

However, a 2003 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae.

The earliest bovids, whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene (20 Mya) has been ascertained, were small animals, somewhat similar to modern gazelles, and probably lived in woodland environments.

[16] The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene, and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted.

[19] The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene, and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam and Awash Valley.

[6] African bovids continued becoming more adapted to mixed feeding, indicated by dental mesowear evidence, as their palaeoenvironment opened up.

[25] All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt end, one or more pairs of horns (generally present on males) immediately after the oval or pointed ears, a distinct neck and limbs, and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species.

All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two (the hooves), while the outer two (the dewclaws) are much smaller and rarely touch the ground.

[3] The bovids show great variation in size: the gaur can weigh more than 1,500 kg (3,300 lb), and stand 2.2 m (87 in) high at the shoulder.

[26] Some species, such as the gemsbok, sable antelope, and Grant's gazelle, are camouflaged with strongly disruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye.

[36] The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration, the strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators.

The zoologist Tim Caro describes this as difficult to explain, but given that the species are diurnal, he suggests that the markings may function in communication.

Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in the Bovidae, where for example Bos, Ovis, bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings.

The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin.

Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species, there are exceptions such as the four-horned antelope[38] and the Jacob sheep.

Instead of the upper incisors, bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue, called the dental pad, that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage.

Like other ruminants, bovids have four-chambered stomachs, which allow them to digest plant material, such as grass, that cannot be used by many other animals.

This antelope hardly displays aggression, and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds, though in a favourable habitat, several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another.

[51] Excluding the cephalophines (duikers), tragelaphines (spiral-horned antelopes) and the neotragines, most African bovids are gregarious and territorial.

Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance, and fights tend to be more rigorous in limited rutting seasons.

These involve varied postures of neck, head, horns, hair, legs, and ears to convey sexual excitement, emotional state, or alarm.

As a rule, only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight, which is intended to determine the superior of the two.

[3] Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources, but the latter are specially adapted to arid areas.

In a few species, individuals are monogamous, resulting in minimal male-male aggression and reduced selection for large body size in males.

The sheep and goats exhibit remarkable seasonality of reproduction, in the determination of which the annual cycle of daily photoperiod plays a pivotal role.

Other factors that have a significant influence on this cycle include the temperature of the surroundings, nutritional status, social interactions, the date of parturition and the lactation period.

Depending on their feeding habits, several species have radiated over large stretches of land, and hence several variations in dental and limb morphology are observed.

[citation needed] The earliest evidence of cattle domestication is from 8000 BC, suggesting that the process began in Cyprus and the Euphrates basin.

Bone meal is an important fertilizer rich in calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, effective in removing soil acidity.