Its origins trace back to the Old Kingdom period (about 2686–2181BCE), where it served as an Egyptian colonial town, particularly recognized for copper smelting.
In 1962, archaeological discoveries brought to light an ancient copper manufacturing facility encircled by an imposing stone barrier, indicating its origin during the rule of Sneferu in the 4th Dynasty.
Inscriptions and graffiti disclosed a continuous Egyptian presence spanning two centuries, only to be interrupted by migration from the southern regions in the 5th Dynasty.
[5][6] Graffiti and other inscribed items from the site show that the Egyptians stayed about 200 years, until late in the 5th Dynasty, when they were probably forced out by immigration from the south.
During the Middle Kingdom, the majority of people occupying Buhen were Egyptians who were directed south from Lower Egypt, and cycled through.
[11] Currently housed at the Khartoum Museum and on loan to the Department of Egyptology at University College London, the horse's skeleton originates from excavations conducted at the Buhen fortress by the Egypt Exploration Society, under Emery's direction in 1958 and 1959.
Subsequent layers of rubble and the later reconstruction efforts of the New Kingdom encased the horse's remains within the fortress walls, offering a clear chronological context for its discovery.
Since true horses were not native to Ancient Egypt, while both wild and domestic asses were common, and Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) was likely available, confirming its identity was crucial.
[11] However, the structure of the Buhen horse's skeleton aligns with those introduced into various regions during the same era, such as India, Iran, northern Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece.
[12] Senusret III conducted four campaigns into Kush and established a line of forts within signaling distance of one another; Buhen was the northernmost of these.
It covered 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft), and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system.
Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses, ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult.
[14][15] Positioned directly adjacent to the main wall, the structure boasted a single entrance located in the western corner.
Towards the northeast, an additional sizable hall, flanked by six pillars, was accompanied by a slender elongated chamber leading to three smaller rooms.
[17] The investigation into potential copper production activities at Buhen offers valuable insights into ancient metallurgical practices.
Emery's discovery of what he identified as an Old Kingdom copper 'factory' has drawn attention from Egyptologists interested in metalworking techniques.
Analysis of a 150 gm ore sample revealed its composition, predominantly consisting of finely dispersed quartz (approximately 44 wt%) and malachite, with notable traces of atacamite, a copper chloride.
[4] Other elements detected through atomic absorption analysis includedzinc, calcium, lead, and silver, with minimal iron content.
[17] Further analysis using an Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer detected an average of 0.18 wt% gold in parts of the ore prepared for optical microscopy.
Buhen would have been an ideal location to produce small quantities of copper, which requires several local resources: human labor, water, clay, wood, a mineral-based flux, and large quantities of ore. During the time of the Old Kingdom, Buhen could offer almost everything necessary: the nearby Nile provided both water and clay,[18] Egypt had many skilled workers who could be brought to Buhen, and although there is little local timber now remaining, during the Old Kingdom, the higher rainfall would have supported more timber along the Nile and Wadis.