[1] There is evidence that targeted cytoplasmic irradiation results in mutation in the nucleus of the hit cells.
The demonstration of a bystander effect in 3D human tissues[8] and, more recently, in whole organisms[9] have clear implication of the potential relevance of the non-targeted response to human health.
This effect may also contribute to the final biological consequences of exposure to low doses of radiation.
[10][11] However, there is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that the bystander effect promotes carcinogenesis in humans at low doses.
T-cells and dendritic cells have been implicated to be part of the mechanism.