Campfire

A new analysis of burned antelope bones from caves in Swartkrans, South Africa, confirms that Australopithecus robustus and/or Homo erectus built campfires roughly 1.6 million years ago.

[1] Nearby evidence within Wonderwerk Cave, at the edge of the Kalahari Desert, has been called the oldest known controlled fire.

[2] Microscopic analysis of plant ash and charred bone fragments suggests that materials in the cave were not heated above about 1,300 °F (704 °C).

The data suggests humans were cooking prey by campfire as far back as the first appearance of Homo erectus 1.9 million years ago.

Alternatively, turf may be cut away to form a bare area and carefully replaced after the fire has cooled to minimize damage.

Another way is to cover the ground with sand, or other soil mostly free of flammable organic material, to a depth of a few inches.

Flying embers are still a threat, and the fire ring may become hot enough to ignite material in contact with it, or the heat the water to a vapor thereby cracking the rocks.

As such, it is important for the fire builder to take multiple safety precautions, including: There are three types of material involved in building a fire without manufactured fuels or modern conveniences such as lighters: In most realistic cases nowadays, non-natural additions to the fuels mentioned above will be used.

Often, charcoal lighters like hexamine fuel tablets or ethyl alcohol will be used to start the fire, as well as various types of scrap paper.

With the proliferation of packaged food, it is quite likely that plastics will be incinerated as well, a practice that not only produces toxic fumes but will also leave polluted ashes behind because of incomplete combustion at too-low open fire temperatures.

Of all the fire-builds, the log cabin is the least vulnerable to premature collapse, but it is also inefficient because it makes the worst use of convection to ignite progressively larger pieces of fuel.

However, these qualities make the log cabin an ideal cooking fire as it burns for a long period of time and can support cookware.

When it is burning briskly, it is broken and pushed down into the consumed tinder, and the larger kindling is placed over the top of the logs.

If built on a large scale, this type of fire-build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the airflow.

Once the fire is burning well, additional pieces of wood are placed on top in layers that alternate directions.

'slit bonfire'), or nying in Scandinavian languages, also called by English terms long log fire or gap fire, is constructed by placing one long and thick piece of fuelwood (log) atop another, parallel, and bolstering them in place with four sturdy posts driven into the ground.

A well constructed rakovalkea of two thick logs of two meters in length can warm two lean-to shelters for a whole sleeping shift.

The flat, circular top provides a surface for placing a kettle or pan for cooking, boiling liquids, and more.

Another variation to the top lighter, log cabin, or pyre is known by several names, most notably the pyramid, self-feeding, and upside-down [method].

Optional are flat stones to partially cover the first hole and provide support for cookery, and a tree over the pits to disperse the smoke.

Most large fires easily create their own circulation, even in unfavourable conditions, but the variant log-cabin fire-build suffers from a chronic lack of air so long as the initial structure is maintained.

Other practical, though not commonly needed, applications for campfires include drying wet clothing, alleviating hypothermia, and distress signaling.

Another traditional campfire activity involves impaling marshmallows on sticks or uncoiled wire coat hangers, and roasting them over the fire.

Dead leaves or pine needles on the ground may ignite from direct contact with burning wood, or from thermal radiation.

Alternatively, airborne embers (or their smaller kin, sparks) may ignite dead material in overhanging branches.

Embers may simply fall off logs and float away in the air, or exploding pockets of sap may eject them at high speed.

Public areas with large tracts of woodland usually have signs that indicate the fire danger level, which usually depends on recent rain and the amount of deadfall or dry debris.

Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire.

To properly cool a fire, water is splashed on all embers, including places that are not glowing red.

The water boils violently and carries ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard.