Little is known of the early life of Cao Futian but he was born during the 19th century, in Jinghai, Zhili province, China.

[2] He raised a militia in Tiānjīn, formed in its majority by illiterate people such as laid-off railway workers, Chinese religious fanatics, criminals, and unemployed youth.

[4] The Qing government was divided as to how to react to the Boxers’ activities, but conservative elements of the court were in favour of them.

Prince Duan, a fervent supporter of the cause, arranged a meeting between Cao and Empress Dowager Ci Xi.

[8] On 14 July 1900, Tiānjīn was captured by the Allied forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance after a three-day battle.