Being one of the most influential and economically successful people in Tanzania, their relative wealth comes from favorable fertile soil of Mount Kilimanjaro, industrious work ethic used in trading and successful agricultural methods, which include historic extensive irrigation systems, terracing, and continuous organic fertilization methods practiced for thousands of years from the time of the Bantu expansion, in their sovereign Chagga states.

For instance, Karl Peters was informed by Mangi Marealle of Marangu in the 1890s that the Wamarangu originated from Ukamba, the Wamoshi from Usambara, but that the Wakibosho had always been on the mountain.

A fascinating local legend claims that a Masai tribe from the west entered Kibongoto, divided their clan, and sent their sons to various regions of the mountain, where they all rose to the position of mangi.

[10] The histories of each Chagga state contain clues as to which clans sprang "from the mountain," which were "dropped there," which originated on the plains, or traveled in an easterly or westerly manner.

When the Chagga traveled here in the past, they used caves on the high track that circles the back of the mountain for shelter, but we are unsure of their exact purpose at this time.

In the mitaa of the ancient Samake, Nguni, and Kyuu, a special kind of cursing stone was employed, and there was fire worship that seemed to be older, different, and more magical than the fire ceremonies that the Usambaras introduced into Kibosho; in Kahe, male and female clay idols were made and were used for cursing by the Arusha Chini folk; and the ancient Mtui clan of Marangu maintained its power.

The fact that the first ancestors arrived with a variety of tools—sometimes bows and arrows, sometimes spears—and that clan memories preserve whether they were hunters, livestock keepers, or cultivators may be crucial.

Initiation, however, was a peculiar blossoming in the center zone and involved teaching tribal lore using symbols carved on a special stick (Kich.

West of this zone, as will be seen, there is oral evidence to suggest that initiation was introduced and then abandoned as a political act to forestall reprisals in one of the major inter-chiefdom feuds on the mountain.

[10] Another factor supporting the idea that the arrival of people from the northeast may merely be a broad generalization is the fact that other East African tribes in the Kilimanjaro region have a history of ascending from the south, driving others north before them.

For further information, see von der Decken's description of this Wanika emigration to the coastal regions behind Mombasa, which he attributes to the rule of Munie Mkoma (Mangi Rongoma) of Kilema.

[11] Regarding the breastwork between Kilema and Usseri, it is possible that Bwana Kheri was referring to the three adjacent large stone-wall enclosures, or fortresses, that Mangi Orombo had constructed in Keni, the mountain's first structure of this scale.

A line of comparable connections in many chiefdoms was started by Mangi Mamkinga of Machame's confidence in his resident Swahili Munie Nesiri four generations later, in 1848.

These signs seem to indicate that the Chagga's origins are more complicated than those of the Taita, who, in response to Rebmann's inquiry, stated that they had traveled thirty days north.

Notably, their irrigation system is highly developed; water is collected from distant sources, including areas beyond virgin forests, and channeled along hillsides and cliffs.

This water is then directed down less noticeable slopes to reservoirs, from which it is distributed through an intricate network of small channels, ensuring equitable access for all.

[12] The Chagga employ wooden implements for farming, including a large pike used to turn the soil, which yields favorable results.

In terms of metallurgy, the Chagga are adept craftsmen, operating primitive forges equipped with goatskin bellows and utilizing wood charcoal instead of coal.

They produce various iron tools, including hatchets, double-edged knives, robust swords, and particularly well-crafted spears, which have gained recognition for their aesthetic appeal, leading some European observers to doubt their Chagga origins.

Historically, the Chagga sourced iron from the Pare people, but they now obtain it from Swahili traders dealing in sticks of varying thickness.

This craftsmanship results in a diverse range of utensils, including troughs, household vessels, bowls, plates, and even items functioning as spoons and forks.

Above the entrance, flowering creepers create an arch, and a nearby stream from the irrigation system enhances the picturesque quality of these family enclosures.

[14] Fire is maintained through traditional bellows operated by a craftsman, and charcoal is treated as a valuable resource, prepared through a careful burning process of trees.

[15] The Chagga diet is predominantly vegetarian, featuring crops such as eleusine millet, bananas, edible lilies (Caribbean cabbage), a variety of peas and beans, sweet potatoes, yams, maize, cassava, guinea corn, and sugar cane.

[12] Members of the Chaga tribes are known for their distinctive traditional jewelry, which includes large and heavy pewter armlets and leglets, as well as multiple necklaces that individuals may wear simultaneously if they possess several.

These fringes serve as cinctures and fillets, from which long strands of Chagga metal beads or chains made of copper, iron, and brass are suspended.

Women are skilled in creating elaborate ornamental jewelry, including earrings, bracelets, necklaces, and girdles made from iron, copper, and tin, as well as colorful pearl beads.

The wedding itself resembles a market transaction, where the bridegroom "kidnaps" the bride in a symbolic manner, reflecting a practice found among various African tribes.

The burial customs vary: if the deceased is a child, an unmarried man, or a childless individual, the body is taken deep into the woods, covered with leaves, and left there.

[19][7]: 27 A blacksmith may be seen hunched over hot embers with his anvil and goatskin bellows in some homesteads, while a woman shaping and firing earthen pots is more infrequently seen in others.