[4] Alternatives to conventional drug development have the objective for universities, governments and pharmaceutical industry to collaborate and optimize resources.
Research teams attempt to break down disease components to find abnormal events/processes taking place in the body.
[9] After "discovery" and a creation of a chemical compound, pharmaceutical companies move forward with the Investigational New Drug (IND) Application from the FDA.
[13] As an example, in 2018, Roche spent $11 billion for research and developmental expenses, and had two failed Phase III trials for an Alzheimer's drug candidate.
[16] The 2014 study was criticized by Medecins Sans Frontieres, which said it was unreliable because the industry's research and development spending is not made public.
[17] Aaron Carroll of the New York Times also criticized the study, saying it "contains a lot of assumptions that tend to favor the pharmaceutical industry.
"[18] The Center's 2016 estimate, published in the Journal of Health Economics, found the cost to have averaged $2.87 billion (in 2013 dollars).