Eruv
In addition, it is also forbidden to transfer an object for a distance of 4 cubits (approximately 2 metres; 7 feet) within a public domain or karmelit (כרמלית).
In modern cities, it is typical for the majority of an eruv to consist of such doorframes, using utility poles and wires.
The sensitivity of utility and public works crews about disturbing eruv-related attachments when making repairs can vary widely.
One of the oldest halakhic disputes in the United States revolves around the issue of an eruv in Manhattan, New York.
Other authorities, such as Rabbis Aharon Kotler and Moshe Feinstein, raised objections, and a major controversy ensued.
Although Conservative Judaism's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards enacted an exception to the general rules of Sabbath observance to permit driving to attend a synagogue, it otherwise formally requires the same rules of Shabbat observance as Orthodox Judaism with respect to carrying a burden.
[22] Compliance with the formal requirements varies, and in fact there is no evidence that people who identify as Conservative ever refrain from carrying outside their homes on Sabbath.
Reform,[23] Reconstructionist, and other more liberal branches of Judaism do not call for observance of the underlying traditional rules against carrying, and hence the issue of an eruv is not relevant.
The same is true for most medical items that are attached to the body and can be considered secondary to it, such as a cast, a bandage, or eyeglasses.
[24][25] A small number of authorities in recent years have been permitting carrying the medication, however, since such a person may be tempted to leave home without it, and then his/her life may be endangered thereafter.
[26][28] In communities without an eruv, it is customary to create belts, bracelets, necklaces, or similar wearable objects incorporating housekeys so that the keys can be worn rather than carried when going outdoors.
To be validly "worn" rather than "carried", the key needs to be an integral part of the belt, bracelet, or other item rather than simply attached to it.
Special "shabbos belts" and similar items that incorporate this property are sold in religious stores.
For example, Mexico City has an eruv that encircles and connects various neighborhoods with notable Jewish populations.
Outside North America, there are eruvin in Antwerp; Amsterdam; Bury, Greater Manchester (Whitefield); Budapest; Gibraltar; Johannesburg; London; Melbourne; Perth; Rio de Janeiro; São Paulo; Strasbourg;[30] Sydney; Venice and Vienna.
[31] In modern times, the agreement of non-Jewish authorities to the establishment of an eruv is documented as early as 1790 in the Habsburg monarchy.
[32] The installation of eruvin has been a matter of contention in many neighbourhoods around the world, with notable examples including the London Borough of Barnet; Outremont, Quebec; Tenafly, New Jersey; Agoura Hills, California; Westhampton Beach, New York; and Bergen County, New Jersey.
Some authorities have interpreted Jewish law as requiring the local government to participate in the process as owners of the sidewalks and streets by giving permission for the construction of the eruv.
[33][34][35] "It's like social engineering," said Arnold Sheiffer, founder of the opposition group Jewish People for the Betterment of Westhampton Beach.
However, Judge Ambro held that in this case, the Borough had not enacted a genuinely general or neutral ordinance because it permitted a wide variety of attachments to utility poles for non-religious purposes, including posting signs and other items.
It was subsequently cited as precedent by a number of other federal courts deciding disputes between an eruv association and a local government.
In Outremont, Quebec, a neighbourhood in Montreal, Canada, the city adopted a policy of removing eruv wires.
[40][41] Between 2015 and 2018, there were ongoing issues with eruv markings extended on utility poles in a section of Bergen County, New Jersey.
The adjoining municipalities of Mahwah, Upper Saddle River and Montvale, all border the state line[42] on the other side of which is Rockland County, New York, where there are large communities of Orthodox Jews.
After some eruvin were extended into Bergen County, allowing travel in the area, the municipalities took action in 2017 to dismantle the lechi markings.
The matter was taken to court, and in January 2018 the presiding judge in the lawsuits made it clear he felt the municipalities did not have a strong case, and urged them to settle.
In general, state law has dealt with whether and to what extent government can permit or assist the erection and maintenance of boundary demarcations on public property.
It has not dealt with the nature of the aggregation agreement or recognized an eruv as having legal effect or as implementing a meaningful change in real property ownership or tenancy.
For purposes of accident liability, trespass, insurance, and other secular matters occurring on Shabbat, state law treats the properties within an eruv as continuing to be separate parcels.
