Fertility factor (demography)
Factors associated with increased fertility include the intention to have children,[1] remaining religiosity,[2] general inter-generational transmission of values,[1] high status of marriage[3][non-primary source needed] and cohabitation,[4][non-primary source needed] maternal[5] and social[1] support, rural residence,[1] a small subset of pro-family social programs,[1] low IQ[6] such as conscientiousness, and generally increased food production.
[7] Factors generally associated with decreased fertility include rising income,[1] value and attitude changes,[8][1] education,[1][9] female labor participation,[10] population control,[11] age,[12] contraception,[1] partner reluctance to child-bearing,[1] infertility,[13] pollution,[14] and obesity.
Research that argues that intentions are a good predictor of actual results tends to draw ideas from the theory of planned behavior (TPB).
Of these, quantum intention is the poor predictor because it tends to change as a result of the ups and downs of a typical life.
[1] A comparison of a survey to birth registers in Norway found that parents were more likely to realize their fertility intentions than childless respondents.
Furthermore, these attitudes tend to hold across the life course, and boil down to three main types: career-oriented, family-oriented, and a combination of both work and family.
The assumption is that parents transmit these family values, preferences, attitudes and religiosity to their children, all of which have long-term effects analogous to genetics.
[21] Other studies, however, show that this effect can be balanced by the child's own attitudes that result from personal experiences, religiosity, education, etc.
[26] Survey data from 2003 in Romania showed that marriage equalized the total fertility rate among both highly educated and limited-education people to approximately 1.4.
Co-residence with parents delayed first births and resulted in lower total fertility and higher probability of childlessness.
[1] Field researchers have found that fertility rates are high and remain relatively stable among rural populations.
Little evidence exists to suggest that high-fertility parents appear to be economically disadvantaged, further strengthening the fact that total fertility rates tend to be higher among women in rural areas.
[32] It is shown through studies that fertility rates differ between regions in ways that reflect the opportunity costs of child rearing.
In a region with high population density, women restrain themselves from having many children due to the costs of living, therefore lowering the fertility rates.
[34] However, other empirical studies show that these programs are expensive and their impact tends to be small, so currently there is no broad consensus on their effectiveness in raising fertility.
[38] Economic theories about declining fertility postulate that people earning more have a higher opportunity cost if they focus on childbirth and parenting rather than continuing their careers,[1] that women who can economically sustain themselves have less incentive to become married,[1] and that higher income parents value quality over quantity and so spend their resources on fewer children.
[39][40] While some researchers cite economic factors as the main driver of fertility decline, socio-cultural theories focus on changes in values and attitudes toward children as being primarily responsible.
For example, the Second Demographic Transition reflects changes in personal goals, religious preferences, relationships, and perhaps most important, family formations.
[1] Another example of this can be found in Europe and in post-Soviet states, where values of increased autonomy and independence have been associated with decreased fertility.
[1] Likewise, a study in Norway found that better-educated males have a decreased probability of remaining childless, although they generally became fathers at an older age.
Studies suggest that in many sub-Saharan African countries fertility decline is linked to female education.
[42][43] Having said this, fertility in undeveloped countries can still be significantly reduced in the absence of any improvement in the general level of formal education.
For example, During the period 1997-2002 (15 years), fertility in Bangladesh fell by almost 40%, despite the fact that literacy rates (especially those of women) did not increase significantly.
[50][51] Still, India's family planning program has been regarded as only partially successful in controlling fertility rates.
[59] The "contraceptive revolution" has played a crucial role in reducing the number of children (quantum) and postponing child-bearing (tempo).
[1] Periods of decreased use of contraceptive pills due to fears of side effects have been linked with increased fertility in the United Kingdom.
[1] However, short-term decreases in fertility may reflect a tempo effect of later childbearing, with individuals using contraceptives catching up later in life.
[13] The most common cause of female infertility is ovulatory problems, which generally manifest themselves by sparse or absent menstrual periods.
[8] The aggregate effects of delayed childbearing tend to be relatively minor, because most women still have their first child well before the onset of infertility.
In the United States, Hispanics, and African Americans have earlier and higher fertility than other racial and ethnic groups.
