However, excessive or insufficient nutrition in the mother can provoke maladaptive developmental responses in the fetus, which in turn manifest in the form of post-natal diseases.
Mouse models suggest that this is due to high levels of the fetal hormone leptin, which is present in the blood of individuals that are overweight or obese.
There is a theory that this hormone has a negative impact on the regulatory systems of the fetus, and renders it impossible to maintain normal blood pressure levels.
[4] Pre-eclampsia, involving oxygen deprivation and death of trophoblastic cells that make up most of the placenta, is a disease which is often associated with maladaptive long-term consequences of inappropriate fetal programming.
Here, an inadequately developed and poorly functioning placenta fails to meet the fetus’ nutritional needs during gestation, either by altering its selection for nutrients which can cross into fetal blood or restricting total volume thereof.
Therefore, mothers suffering from thyroid-related issues and altered thyroid hormone levels may inadvertently trigger structural and functional changes in the fetal brain.
[17] Maternal depression poses one of the greatest risks for increased vulnerability to adverse outcomes for a baby that is developing in the uterus, especially in terms of susceptibility to a variety of psychological conditions.
[18] Mechanisms that may explain the connection between maternal depression and the offspring's future health are mostly unclear and form a current area of active research.
[18] Genetic inheritance that may be rendering the child more susceptible may play a role, including the effect on the intrauterine environment for the baby whilst the mother suffers from depression.
[6] Toxins such as alcohol, tobacco and certain drugs to which the baby is exposed to during its development are thought to contribute to fetal programming, especially via alterations to the HPA axis.
[20] Changes posed to the fetus through ethanol exposure may significantly effect growth and development; these are collectively known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD).