[4] All rulers of the Former Liang remained largely titularly under the court of the Eastern Jin dynasty as the Duke of Xiping except Zhang Zuo who proclaimed himself emperor (or king).

After Emperor Min of Jin’s capture and execution, Zhang Shi sent envoys to the prince, Sima Rui at Jiankang in the south, urging him to take the throne.

The dynasty was re-established as the Eastern Jin in 318, but despite his endorsement, Zhang Shi refused to adopt Sima Rui’s new reign era.

[4] In the mid-fourth century, it is believed that Former Liang could have maintained control over much of modern day Gansu and Xinjiang, as well as portions of Qinghai and Ningxia.

[10] Under him, the Former Liang began to use the ranks and titles of the imperial court, as well as imitating the flag, trappings, and carriage of the Emperor roughly twenty-one years into his reign.

[11] His state's immense wealth was exemplified by his extravagant building projects, most notably the five palaces he built south of Guzang.

The Liang general, Xie Ai initially repelled the invaders, but they still lost their territory south of the Yellow River.

[9] During and after the Later Zhao collapse in the early 350s, Chonghua attempted to reclaim lost land and expand eastward, but his efforts were frustrated by the new and rising Former Qin dynasty.

His death in 353 began a lengthy period of internal turmoil within the state as he left behind his 10-year-old son Zhang Yaoling on the throne.

Zhang Tianxi served as a mid-level official under the Qin, but in the aftermath of the Battle of Fei River in 383, he managed to escape to the Eastern Jin.

Despite the chaos that plagued Former Liang in its later years, it also saw the emergence of the Mogao Caves, as these Buddhist grottoes are widely believed to have been first constructed by the monk, Le Zun (樂尊) near Dunhuang in 366.