Gender roles in childhood

[10] Children's toy preferences are significantly related to parental sex-typing, such as girls playing with dolls and boys participating in sports.

[16] Hughes suggested this may have to do with a greater tendency for girls to use understanding of mind to seek emotional support, empathize, and cooperate.

[18] One example of this is, girls may show a greater tendency than boys to use their increasing understanding of mind to elicit emotional support, or to develop their skills of empathy and cooperation.

[19] Searle & Meara 1999 found that among college men, people who are securely attached are less likely to suppress their emotions but feel more comfortable expressing it.

[28] One of the most compelling theories regarding biologically determined gender differences is the idea that male-preference and female-preference for toys are mediated by inequities in visual processing[citation needed].

The author suggests that inherent sex differences based on perceptual categories encourage children to seek out playmates of a similar play style, and ultimately predisposes them for later social and gender roles[citation needed].

Both pathways are present in males and females, and M-cells are designed to recognize motion, while P-cells specialize in form and color perception[citation needed].

Beyond hormonal explanations, Alexander (2003) also employs an evolutionary biology perspective to link contemporary toy preference to early selective pressures and the development of visual specialization[citation needed].

Specifically, male M-cell pathway dominance is connected back to motion mediated activities like hunting and the throwing of projectiles[citation needed].

Female P-cell dominance is tied to foraging for plants, a task requiring discrimination between colors and memory of form[citation needed].

An experiment was performed by putting a desirable toy in an out-of-reach place, but also giving the child 5 different tools he/she could use to help retrieve this object[citation needed].

Further, a study by Jadva, Hines, and Golombok showed that while male and female infants show more visual attention towards toys specific to their gender, there is no significant sex difference in color or shape preference at a young age, which suggests that, for example, a preference for the color pink in girls stems more from societal norms than from an innate capacity.

[25] In one study by Eric W. Lindsey and Jacquelyn Mize, context can have a big effect on the types of activities children will partake in[citation needed].

For example, this article outlines that if parents associate certain household tasks with gender unintentionally, the child can get an idea that certain things are "masculine" and "feminine.

[citation needed] This viewpoint is validated in a recent study by Goldberg, Kashy, and Smith, which showed that sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in the way in which they played than those of gay fathers or heterosexual parents.

[39][41] A study looked at dyadic friendships, which is believed to be the preferred form of relationship for girls, and found that bonds between males are more durable than those between females.

[42] By the time children are entering preschool or kindergarten, they have a general understanding of male and female gender, and have internalized some basic schemas regarding the roles and appearances of each.

[43] For preschool-aged children, and important source of such information is the picture books written specifically for their age group, which are often read to them in their impressionable years.

[42] A study done by Powel and Abel analyzed how sex-role stereotypes in television programs such as Teletubbies and Barney are aimed at the preschool audience.

[46] Others have noted that story books that showcase characters doing tasks or in jobs usually assigned to the opposite sex, can impact children's play helping to change a child's view on what behavior's is for men or women, boys or girls.

Stemple and Annie's Plaid Shirt by Stacy B Davids and Rachael Balsaitis showcase girls who do not express typical gender roles and explore atypical behaviour.

[5] At any point, research suggests that children who assert a gender-diverse identity know their gender as clearly and consistently as their developmentally matched peers and benefit from the same level of support, love, and social acceptance.

[49] However, all children need support, love, and care from family, school, and society, which fosters growth into happy and healthy adults.

[49] The social impacts of imposing gender roles on children become evident very early in life and usually follow the child as they continue their development[citation needed].

She calls social behavior "gender-stereotypic" and says that most of the expectations of gender roles come from the stereotypes associated with them, such as a woman to be kind and compassionate and a man to be in control and independent.

Boys who preferred to play with dolls rather than trucks were five to six times more likely to be harassed by their peers than those who conformed to the norm[citation needed].

[55] Pre-schoolers and children aged 3–5 show a negative reaction and punishment like ridicule when someone from their in-groups, either boys or girls, play with a toy associated with the out-group.

[58] Children generally fall into these patterns with little guidance from either parents or teachers; they are encouraged to interact with members of the same sex and begin to adopt behavior that is considered gender appropriate[citation needed].

This instinctive segregation encourages the gap between males and females and helps to reinforce gender roles as the child continues to grow.

[59] Prior to the name "Social Cognitive Theory," gender development was originally viewed through a traditional learning standpoint, which stemmed from behaviorism.